The Proposed One-stop Border Post

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

BAR 6102: RESEARCH FOR ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN A STUDY OF THE BORDER B ORDER CROSSING POSTS DESIGNS AND THE ROLE R OLE ARCHITECTURE CAN PLAY TO IMPROVE THE IMMIGRATION/EMIGRATION PROCESS SO AS TO STIMULATE TRADE AND TOURISM IN ZIMBABWE.

THE PROPOSED ONE-STOP BORDER POST BY

ALLEN DZUDA (N0114275X)

A Thesis Submitted To The Department of Architecture In Partial Completion Of The Barchelor Of Architecture Degree Coarse

Bulawayo, Zimbabwe December 2011

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ALLEN DZUDA, N0114275X

DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis A STUDY OF THE BORDER CROSSING POSTS DESIGNS AND THE ROLE ARCHITECTURE CAN PLAY TO IMPROVE THE IMMIGRATION/EMIGRATION PROCESS SO AS TO STIMULATE TRADE AND TOURISM IN ZIMBABWE. The Proposed One-Stop Border Post for the award of the barchelor of Architecture submitted to the Department of Architecture, Faculty of the built Environment, National University of Science and Technology is that of the candidate alone and has not been submitted previously, previously, in whole or in part, in respect to any other academic award and has not been published in any form except where due reference is given.

Candidate name:

Candidate Number:

Allen Dzuda

______________________________ Signature

N0114275X

______________________________ Date

As Witness Co-ordinator:

Ms V. Madiro ______________________________ Signature

Chairman, Department of Architecture:

Mr. A.B Ncube

______________________________ Signature

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______________________________ Date

______________________________ Date


DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis A STUDY OF THE BORDER CROSSING POSTS DESIGNS AND THE ROLE ARCHITECTURE CAN PLAY TO IMPROVE THE IMMIGRATION/EMIGRATION PROCESS SO AS TO STIMULATE TRADE AND TOURISM IN ZIMBABWE. The Proposed One-Stop Border Post for the award of the barchelor of Architecture submitted to the Department of Architecture, Faculty of the built Environment, National University of Science and Technology is that of the candidate alone and has not been submitted previously, previously, in whole or in part, in respect to any other academic award and has not been published in any form except where due reference is given.

Candidate name:

Candidate Number:

Allen Dzuda

______________________________ Signature

N0114275X

______________________________ Date

As Witness Co-ordinator:

Ms V. Madiro ______________________________ Signature

Chairman, Department of Architecture:

Mr. A.B Ncube

______________________________ Signature

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______________________________ Date

______________________________ Date


DEDICATION This thesis research is dedicated to. to.

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ABSTRACT Cross border trade and travel is an important i mportant economic and social activity for Zimbabwe. Geographically, Zimbabwe sits at the heart of the Southern African Development Co-operation Co-operation (SADC) region thereby making it a strategic role player in Southern African socio, trade and commerce activities. International travel by road is most dominant mode of transport. It carries the bulk of the passenger and goods ferried across international international borders. However road travel is a tedious experience that consumes a lot of time and money. These negative negative elements discourage road travelling and thus can affect trade and tourism of a country. An efficient border post is a frontline promotion banner for a countrys trade and social opportunities. Therefore it is important that its spatial design and overall ov erall architecture be both functional and aesthetically pleasing. This research seeks to study the processes and infrastructure that is available at existing Zimbabwean border crossing posts and intervene by providing an architectural solution to solve the negatives that the international international travellers currently experience. Through a well thought-out architectural design treatment, the form and function of border posts can be manipulated to provide an improved i mproved immigration/emigration/emigration immigration/emigration/emigration experience that allows travellers an access to services that range from administrative to r ecreational conveniently whilst going about their business.

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to offer my sincere thanks to the following people for their invaluable support during the course of the research, without whom it would not have been possible to successfully complete this thesis. thesis. I thank firstly, the staff in the Department of Architecture at the National University of Science S cience and Technology who are, the Coarse Co-ordinator Ms V. Madiro for having the patience and time to continuously guide me from the very beginning to the very end of this research r esearch study, Mr.., Mr.. for their well-informed academic input into this thesis. I thank my late parents Mr Arthur and Mrs Isabel Dzuda for moulding me into the person, husband, father and brother I have become. become. Their input in my life I will forever hold dear and for being the inspiration behind the courage I had to complete my architectural studies. My beautiful wife Marvellous and children Arthur and Anotida Ano tida for their love and support through the difficulties I endured. Chiedza Manyepa for being a true brother and taking good care of me during my studies and I will forever owe him one. To the staff of .. for their time and the th e patience in providing me with the valuable . And finally God the ever present father, for giving me the opportunity and providing me with the conducive environment to enrol and finalise my studies after so many years of trying.

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LIST OF FIGURES

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TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................. ABSTRACT . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. LIST OF FIGURES .. TABLE OF CONTENTS  CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND  1.1 INTRODUCTION .. 1.1.1 Background .. 1.1.2 Motivation and Justification of Study  1.2 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES  . 1.2.1 Definition of the Problem  1.2.2 Aim . 1.2.3 Objectives . 1.3 SETTING OUT THE SCOPE . 1.3.1 Delimitation of Research Problem  1.3.2 Definition of Terms . 1.3.3 Stating the Assumptions . 1.3.4 Key Questions . 1.3.5 Hypothesis ... 1.4 KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES  1.4.1 One stop border posts concept . 1.4.2 The coordinated border management . 1.4.3 Southern African Regional Architecture .. 1.5

RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS ... 1.5.1 Research Methods . 1.5.2 Research Materials ..

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .. 2.0 INTRODUCTION . 2.1 ONE STOP BORDER POSTS CONCEPT .. 2.1.1 Origin of Single-Stop Customs Inspection Practice .. 2.1.2 North America .. 2.1.3 Europe . 2.1.4 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Other Countries in the Former Soviet Union . 2.1.5 Africa . 2.1.6 The for Single-Stop Customs Inspection . 11 2.1.7 Simplification and harmonisation border processes 

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2.2

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THE COORDINATED BORDER MANAGEMENT ..

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CBM

Coordinated Border Management

COMESA DFID EAC ICT JICA OSBP SADC WCO ZIMRA ZRA

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa Department for International Development East Africa Community Information and Communication Technology Japanese International Cooperation Agency One Stop Border Post Southern Africa Development Community World Customs Organisation Zimbabwe Revenue Authority Zambia Revenue Authority

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1.1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 BACKGROUND We live in a global village; this is a common term closely associated with Marshall McLuhan popularized in his books, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) and Understanding Media (1964). Contemporary social scientists and economists alike have made reference to this term in order to explain a number of modern day phenomenon. McLuhan described how the globe has been contracted into a vill age by electric technology and the instantaneous movement of information from every quarter to every point at the same time. In bringing all social and political functions together in a sudden implosion, electric speed heightened human awareness of responsibility to an intense degree. This analogy holds true for physical communication in-terms of travelling geographically from one place to another. Road, rail, sea and air travel has also revolutionised human interaction. Thus travel in-between regions, countries and even continents has become an important catalyst to international academic, business, religious, and social interaction. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_village_(term)) In Southern Africa, road travel is the most preferred mode of transport. Therefore border posts are a hive of activity as people and goods are ferried across from one country to another. The busiest border crossing point in Africa is Beitbridge. It connects South Africa which is the biggest African economy to the rest of Southern and Central Africa. Beitbridge is one of the few border posts in Africa that operates 24 hours a days. This shows its significance as an important social and economic node in the Southern and Central African region. This fact sets the scene of the kind of chaos and problems that one typically endures when in transit. Hence it is common for passengers and freight to spend a considerable amount of their travelling time processing their paperwork for crossing from one side of the border to the other. Thus it i s imperative that a new concept of conducting border immigration/emigration processes be formulated in-order to address the problems and take advantage of economic and social opportunities that cross border interaction presents to nations.

1.1.2 MOTIVATION AND JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY The current built infrastructure and immigration/emigration processes no longer suffice for the high demand in trade and travel within Southern and Central Africa. Zimbabwe being centrally located within the region is a transport hub that connects different countries and it needs to develop and take advantage of its strategic position. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) trade blocks have seriously considered the idea of a free trade area/block for some time now. The benefits of such a trade block cannot be underrated and it is obvious that this is the direction that the region is heading towards as countries try to integrate the economies of the sub-region, and ensure free flow of goods and services.

Therefore there is a need to study and i nvestigate the following: a. The architectural possibilities of improving and expediting the immigration/emigration process so as to reduce time spent crossing the border.

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b. Investigate how architecture can catalyse and promote cross border travel and trade, through providing beautiful and fu nctional spaces. c. Explore the concept of a one-stop border post and how immigration/emigration processes that involve two nations can be housed under one roof as it were without compromising the respective countries sovereignty and integrity.

1.2

DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.2.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM Current border infrastructure is not well informed in terms of the needs and expectations of the travelling and trade public. The architecture and spatial arrangement does not incentivise efficiency and comfort for the travellers and the immigration/emigration staff. On the other hand the immigration/emigration process is tedious, time and money consuming. A key cause of lengthy transit times is the inordinately long procedures involved in passing through two sets of identical controls on each side of the border. Currently, a typical border point operates with two separate controls in each respective territory. This I believe has a negative effect socially and economically as it discourages would-be travellers. Thus there is need for a paradigm shift in-terms of the planning and the architecture used for border crossing points.

1.2.2 AIM To develop the concept of a one-stop border post as a means of solving the current bads that are being experienced by the travelling public, as well as the immigration/emigration staff. This is also in-line with the concept of the regional free trade area as envisaged by SADC and COMESA so as to foster regional integration thus improving the social and economic fortunes of the region.

1.2.3 OBJECTIVES a. Develop the one stop border post concept as a way to improving the immigration/emigration experience and foster regional integration. b. To explore the architectural solution to the immigration/emigration challenges currently being experienced in Zimbabwean border posts. c. Investigate and show the economic benefits that are accrued by a beautiful, functional and efficient architecture.

1.3

SETTING OUT THE SCOPE

1.3.1 DELIMITATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM The thesis will interrogate current border crossing architecture and spatial arrangement and if there are any statutes that influence them. It will also look into current mmigration/emigration processes at Zimbabwes border posts and get an informed understanding of the processes that are involved. The one-stop border post concept has been implemented at Chirundu (Zimbabwe  Zambia border) as well as in Europe where they have used it since the 1960s. Relevant case studies will

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be studied and interrogated so as to understand their strengths and weaknesses in-order to inform this research and develop a one-stop border that best suites the Zimbabwean situation. The architecture will be informed by local and regional precedencies in-order to be in the correct context and to be suitable and fit for its purpose.

1.3.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS a. Global village  a global interconnected society connected through technological advancement that is involved with one another from countries around the world and is more aware of its global responsibilities. b. Built infrastructure  It can be generally defined as the set of interconnected structural elements that provide framework supporting an entire structure of development. c. Immigration/emigration process  The act of admitting foreign nationals into a country for the purpose of permanent/temporary residence. d. Emigration process - The act of leaving one's country or region to settle in another permanently/temporarily. e. Free trade area/block  Is a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free trade agreement (FTA), which eliminates tariffs, import quotas, and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded between them. f.

One-stop border post  This is a coordinated border management system (including built infrastructure) established between neighbouring countries, with the aim of reducing time and costs of moving people and goods across borders.

g. Architectural solution  The art and science of design which incorporates the process and product of planning, designing and construction of buildings and spaces that aims to address specific problems and requirements. h. Critical regionalism - is an approach to architecture that strives to counter placelessness and lack of identity in modern architecture by using the buildings geographical context. i.

Phenomenology  is both a philosophical design current in contemporary architecture and a specific field of academic research, based on the experience of building materials and their sensory properties.

1.3.3 STATING THE ASSUMPTIONS a. This research assumes that the one-stop border concept does not violate any statutory laws of the nations in question. b. There is what can be termed to be a regional architectural style that is generally accepted as the home grown contemporary Southern to Central African style.

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c. That immigration/emigration processes carried out by the respective nations in Southern to Central African is basically homogeneous and compatible.

1.3.4 KEY QUESTIONS With the progress made in liberalising international trade through the reduction in tariff barriers, the focus is shifting increasingly to the removal of non-tariff barriers and the facilitation of legitimate trade. At the same time, border management is becoming more complex and this is compounded by the multiplicity of state agencies involved in that management. Therefore it is important to ask the following: a. To what extent can efficiency at border posts be improved through an architectural solution? b. How and to what extent does the one-stop border concept solve current challenges? c. What are the advantages and limitations of the current built stru ctures that are currently provided? d. To what extent can the one-stop border concept and good architecture stimulate intraregional trade and commerce?

1.3.5 HYPOTHESIS Successful border posts are a product of both a coordinated border management system; and a beautiful and functional architecture.

1.4

KEY CONCEPTS AND THEORIES

1.4.1 ONE STOP BORDER POSTS CONCEPT The one stop concept is the ability of border authorities from two countries to p erform joint controls. This results in improved enforcement efficiencies through cooperation, the sharing of intelligence and better resource utilisation. In working side-by-side, cooperation is enhanced and communication is easier. The concept also provides for the sharing of ideas, information and experiences. (www.worldcustomsjournal.org_media_wcj_-2010_1_Kieck)

1.4.2 THE COORDINATED BORDER MANAGEMENT The border connects countries with each other and the effectiveness and smooth operation of these connections are central to the economic and social development of countries. At the same time, the protection of the border is essential for the protection of the state and its people and economy. In the context of a developmental state, the border also has special significance. The border and flows of people and goods across that border connect the state to economic opportunities through trade, tourism and foreign investment. At the same time, these flows also present risks. (www.worldcustomsjournal.org_media_wcj_-2010_1_Kieck)

1.4.3 SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE The southern African sub-continent is the home of a ri ch and varied architectural tradition. Not only does this include a wide range of i ndigenous built environments but the influx of white immigrants, from 1652 onwards, also ensured that many of the styles emerging in Europe, America and Asia during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries found reflection in local buildings. In spite of these apparently disparate roots however, South African archi tecture has, nonetheless, achieved a wider homogeneity, being united by a common concern towards

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climate and materials, and an ability, on the part of local builders, to adapt, adopt and reinterpret the building forms and textures of other cultures. In the process they have also given them new meaning in terms of local values and building customs. This has given rise to numerous cases of cross-cultural pollination. The trims of Victorian colonial buildings, for example, have been reinterpreted by local artists and incorporated into their traditional decorative patterns; the rural use of exterior space has influenced the growth of an urban verandah, porch and patio tradition; and the European medieval "longhouse", imported to the Cape by early white settlers, adapted to local conditions and spread throughout the region to become a house form common to black and white farmers alike. (http://francofrescura.co.za/historical-conservation-styles.html)

1.5

RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS

1.5.1 RESEARCH METHODS 1.5.2 RESEARCH MATERIALS The internet, periodicals and books will be the primary source of research information in the formulation of the theoretical body of research. The research will also heavily depend upon case studies of similar border post developments. Interviews will be carried out with the relevant statutory institutions that are concerned with planning and management of border posts in the concerned countries. A practical application of the highlighted concepts and theories will be carried out in-order to d erive the answers to the research questions.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW In its quest to advance its on-going regional integration efforts, SADC and COMESA have been experimenting with the concept of a one-stop border. A pilot project was carried out at Chirundu border post (on the Zimbabwean/Zambian border). The results obtained from this experiment encouraged the replication of one stop border post in other busy r outes in Southern Africa.

2.1

ONE STOP BORDER POSTS CONCEPT

2.1.1 ORIGIN OF SINGLE-STOP CUSTOMS INSPECTION PRACTICE The trend toward single stop inspection world-wide is a relatively recent phenomenon that has taken root in Europe and North America as economic integration motivated countries to speed up the trading process by removing the impediments in the international transport system. The practice is predicated on the rationale of reducing duplicated inspections traditionally found in countries sharing a land border where outbound traffic is inspected upon leaving a country and again when entering the other country. This duplication of inspection is: Time consuming. Document intensive. Susceptible to unpredictable delays. That cost the shipper in terms of: Spoilt goods (particularly perishables). High inventory (to avoid stock out). Price-markdown in the event of late delivery beyond the contractual date (particularly time-sensitive products). A single-stop inspection procedure properly designed and operated, would minimize or avoid these consequences. A single-stop procedure is one that is carried out once at the border on a site that is located in the territory of either country with respect to the national laws of both countries. This notion leads to several models of Customs cooperation that can be viewed by keeping in mind the distinction between the process of inspection control and the configuration of facilities. y y y

y y y

In the case of Customs control, there are several methods of performing the function to satisfy the Customs laws of each country within the concept of single stop inspection. One method is delegated authority, a means by which the Customs of one country defers authority to the Customs of another jurisdiction to carry out the inspection pro cess. This method hinges on the mutual recognition of Customs procedures, a requirement that stresses a high degree of trust and transfer of sovereignty. Another method is joint Customs control, a means where Customs of both jurisdictions carry out the i nspection simultaneously (or almost simultaneously). Involving the joint cooperation of both Customs administrations, this method is considered more practicable where sovereignty is a sensitive matter. The application of Customs control, whether based on delegated authority or joint inspection, has to take place at a designated facility. How this facility is configured is of interest because it attracts jurisdictional attention and affects design, construction and operation. In this r egard, there are several physical arrangements that can facilitate the control process but these

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arrangements possess the distinguishing feature that there is a common control area where joint inspections take place. The most obvious configuration, for either method of control, is the single shared facility that straddles the border or is located on one side of the border. Alternatively, there is the split configuration that is primarily applicable to joint inspection, where one facility is located on a particular side of the border while the other facility is located on the other side. In a split arrangement, one facility usually specializes in a particular function while the other facility specializes in another function according to traffic direction (inbound/outbound) and carriage (passenger and/or freight). Within these basic configurations, there are others that can be configured, such as an integrated facility located in a common control zone that straddles the border (or located on one side of the border), for Customs of both countries to perform joint inspection while maintaining individual facilities. In practice, the configuration of single-stop Customs control depends on several factors ascribed to the following: Topography of the particular border site. Nature of the goods or passenger traffic passing through. Risk profile of the country, users and/or goods; and Insistence by the countries on reciprocal treatment. y y y y

International experience in Europe and North America indicates that certain configurations of single-stop inspection are more prevalent, as will be seen in the next section. Suffice to say at this juncture that in the exercise of Customs control, little or no experience is reported on the use of delegated authority based on mutual recognition of procedures by any of the countries in the region, whereas there is an overwhelming practice in joint Customs operation. In other words, international experience in single-stop inspection is concentrated on joint Customs control.

2.1.2 NORTH AMERICA In North America, there is a long established practice between Canada and the United States of sharing facilities at isolated land border crossings in outlying areas. These are remote stations that straddle the border, many of which are small but others have higher volume border crossings. In four of the relatively higher volume remote border crossings in particular, new facilities have been constructed (or are near completion) where both governments share facilities (and costs) to accommodate border service agencies under one roof or in close proximity. Built in response to the Shared Border Accord signed by both countries in 1997, these facilities are found at border crossings between Sweetgrass in Montana and Coutts in Alberta, Poker Creek in Alaska and Little Gold Creek in Yukon, and Oroville in Washington and Osoyoos in British Columbia. The events of September 11, 2001 have given a boost to closer Customs cooperation between the two countries. In December 2001, the governments of Canada and the United States signed a Smart Border Declaration and Associated 30-Point Action Plan to modernize border management, taking into consideration a series of measures that include wider deployment of shared facilities and joint controls at border crossings. In September 2002, the two

16


governments announced 12 additional border crossings for consideration of joint Customs operations.

2.1.3 EUROPE Joint Customs control has been introduced between the European Union countries and their eastern neighbours, notably at key border crossings between Austria and Hungary (Nickesdorf and Hegyeshalom), Germany and Poland (Penkum and Koblaskowo; Frankfurt and Slubice; Gablenz and Tuplice; Gorlitz and Zgorzelec), and Germany and the Cze ch Republic (Schmiding and Cheb; Furth Im Wald and Folmava; Bayerisch Eisenstein and Zelena Ruda; and Philippsreut and Strazn). At these border crossings, joint Customs operations are currently controlli ng the flow of trade and people. Outside the European Union, developing countries belonging to the South Eastern European Co-operative Initiative (SECI) comprising Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Slovenia and Turkey, are committing themselves to a step by step introduction of joint controls and joint facilities. This commitment is the result of the work of SECI, an initiative launched in 1996 to provide a framework for trans-boundary cooperation between states in South Eastern Europe. The United Nations Economic Co mmission for Europe (UNECE) is directly assisting SECI in the implementation of the initiative, focussing on locations in the major Pan European corridors. There are already several examples of progress achieved in this area. Bosnian a nd Croatian customs officials have set up a single customs house on Croatian territory at the Neum-Klek border crossing. Moldova and Romania are also engaged in join t Customs control.

2.1.4 COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES (CIS) AND OTHER COUNTRIES IN THE FORMER SOVIET UNION Countries in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)2, in the attempt to li beralize trade and pursue Customs reform, have been active in the development of single stop inspection. An interesting example is that of Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and Transdniestria (breakaway region of Moldova) making a quadrilateral arrangement to establish joint Customs control at a checkpoint on the Transdniestrian section of the Moldovan-Ukrainian border with Russian Customs officials controlling it on a third party basis. This example represents the only case identified where Customs control is embarked upon by means of delegated authority, albeit on a third party basis. Ukraine is most active on this front, having introduced a number of joint Customs control stations at the frontier with Moldova and Belarus. Furthermore, it is completing an arrangement with Poland for introduction of joint Customs control at several checkpoints. Belarus, another member of CIS, eliminated Customs control on its side of the border with the Russian Federation in 1995 and instructed the Belarusian State Customs Committee to work with customs bodies in the Russian Federation to establish joint customs control. Joint Customs control is in operation today in several checkpoints along the Belarus-Russia border. Outside the CIS, The Baltic state of Latvia has established a number of joint Customs control stations at border crossings with Lithuania (Gricgale and Souvainiskis, Medumi and Zarasai, and

17


Meitene and Joniskis) and Estonia (Ainazi and Ikla, Veclaicene and Murati, and Valka and Valga). These border crossings are directed mainly at import (inbound) traffic entering Latvia.

2.1.5 AFRICA The significant work on single stop inspection carried out in the African continent belongs to the countries in the South African Development Community. Comprised of 14 member states that include Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, SADC has been debating the subject with the view to implementing it since the mid-1990s. Prompted by the growing awareness of the high costs of delays at the border crossings in the region, the SADC treaty has placed joint customs controls firmly on its agenda. This interest is further amplified by the support of the Customs administrations in SADC th at have expressed their resolve to continue with efforts to establish one stop processing of customs formalities in such forms as may be agreed to by the member countries concerned. Although no two states have implemented joint Customs controls on a p ermanent basis in SADC at this juncture, there have however been a number of initiatives that, collectively, reflect the growing sense of purpose among the SADC Customs Administrations to implement joint controls as and when feasible. These initiatives include: Negotiations between South Africa and Namibia on establishing joint facili ties in 1997; Conclusion of an Agreement on Combined National Border Control between South Africa and Mozambique; Discussions on implementing joint controls between the South Africa Customs Administration and counterparts in Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe; harmonization of border post business hours between Namibia and Botswana; Planning for the new Kazungula border crossing bridge which is being undertaken on the premise that Botswana and Zambia will implement joint controls; and Notably, a recent pilot project in joint Customs control that was successfully conducted between South Africa and Mozambique at a facility located in South Africa by Customs officials from both countries. y

y

y

y

y

2.1.6 THE LEGAL BASIS FOR SINGLE-STOP CUSTOMS INSPECTION The legal force driving single-stop inspection or joint Customs control is the collection of international agreements established over the last three decades that relate to the simplification of customs procedures and the harmonization of border controls. The most important is the International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures, also known as the "Kyoto Convention", which was prepared under the aegis of the Customs Co-operation Council and later renamed the World Customs Organization (WCO). The original Kyoto Convention entered into force on 26 September 1974 and has been ratified by 62 states. In 1999, a revised text of the convention, known as Kyoto 2000, was prepared by WCO that was agreed to by the WCO member states. To date, 11 contracting states have ratified Kyoto 2000 and another 29 signatories are required for the amendment to enter into force. Kyoto 2000 provides the international benchmark for the introduction of joint customs controls, as p er

18


Chapter 3 of the General Annex to the Convention that binds the parties to implement the following standards: Transitional Standard At common border crossings, the Customs administrations concerned shall, whenever possible, operate joint controls. y

y

Transitional Standard Where the Customs intend to establish a new Customs office or to convert an existing office to a common border crossing, they shall, wherever possible, cooperate with the neighbouring Customs to establish a juxtaposed Customs office to facilitate joint controls".

The concept is further defined in the guidelines on the interpretation of the General Annex as follows: The customs controls of the exporting administration are conducted at the sa me time as the customs formalities of the importing administration (or near simultaneously) by officers from both customs administrations; and The customs controls are conducted within a common area where customs offices of both administrations are established, whether in separate buildings or in a single facility. y

y

2.1.7 SINGLE-STOP INSPECTION MODELS Straddling facilities occur at both small border crossings handling low traffic volumes and large border crossings processing high volumes of cargo. The form er are found in many remote border crossings between the United States and Canada, normally manned by only a single official from both sides. In these cases, the respective customs authorities provide simple facilities (normally no more than two to three rooms) that are shared by Canadian and US personnel. These facilities straddle the border, enabling each official to continue to perform official duties on home soil. This approach is illustrated graphically below:

FIGURE: 1 INSPECTION FACILITY STRADDLING THE COMMON BORDER

Newer facilities of this kind controlling the Canada-U.S. traffic tend to be somewhat larger, distinguishing between common user areas and dedicated offices as well as separating between passenger traffic and commercial traffic. In isolated locations, residential

19


accommodation is provided for as well. Examples of this kind include the border crossings between: Little Gold Creek in Yukon, Canada and Poker Creek in Alaska, U.S. Osoyoos in British Columbia, Canada and Oroville in Washington, U.S. y y

In contrast, high traffic volume border stations that straddle the border are characterized by extensive integrated facilities. At these large border stations, each country still has faciliti es located on its side of the border. However, officials use common control zones, which are effectively located in both countries and even only one country, to conduct joint controls. Within these zones, officials perform all the control functions mandated by the respective national laws. This configuration is shown below:

FIGURE : 2 INSPECTION FACILITIES LOCATED IN COMMON CONTROL ZONE STRADDLING THE BORDER

In the border crossings between Canada and the United States, an example of this kind is the newly constructed facilities at Coutts in Alberta, Canada and Sweetgrass in Montana, U.S. The twelve new border crossings designated by both governments for the operation of joint facilities indicated earlier would mostly fall into this category as well, according to Canadian authorities. However, the more notable examples of integrated facilities are found in Europe at the major border crossings between Germany and Poland (e.g. Penkum and Koblaskowo, Gablenz and Tuplice and Gorlitz and Zgorzelec), Germany and the Czech Republic (e.g., Bayerisch Eisenstein and Zelena Ruda, Furth Im Wald and Folmava) and Austria and Hungary (Furstenfeld and Kormend).

2.1.8 FACILITIES LOCATED WHOLLY WITHIN ONE STATE While straddling facilities may be a desirable configuration, topography or other reasons may make it impractical to build and operate. A hilly area, river crossing or other physical constraints are some of the reasons that may stand in the way. Where this has occurred, states have agreed to locate facilities wholly within the national territory of only one state. This

20


means that entry and exit controls in respect of all forms of traffic are conducted only within the territory of one state and offi cials from both states work together in a common control zone. A graphic illustration of this kind of configuration is shown below: FIGURE: 3 INSPECTION FACILITIES LOCATED WHOLLY WITHIN ONE STATE

An example of this kind is the border crossings between Germany and Poland where the Customs station is located in German territory at Frankfurt an de Oder. Another is the border between Bosnia and Croatia, where Customs administrations of both countries have set up a single customs house on Croatian territory at the Neum-Klek border crossing. Also, along the border between Belarus and Russian Federation, the joint Customs checkpoints are located on the Russian side.

2.1.9 SPLIT FACILITIES WITH EXCHANGE OF PERSONNEL Where states prefer to retain existing border facilities, that is, two separate buildings, officials may under the concept of single stop be stationed in each others territories to ensure that joint controls can be undertaken. This approach enables states to diff erentiate in the treatment between: Passenger traffic and commercial (goods) traffic; or Inbound traffic and outbound traffic; or Combination of the above; y y y

Individual Facility Dedicated to Either Freight or Passenger Traffic

21


In this case of split facilities, the existing border stations are dedicated to the processing of passenger traffic at one border station while the commercial goods are processed at the other border station. Both border posts are, however, staffed by Customs offi cials from both states to support joint controls. A graphic illustration of this configuration is shown below.

FIGURE: 4 SPLIT FACILITIES WITH EXCHANGE OF PERSONNEL INDIVIDIUAL FACILITY DEDICATED TO CONTROL OF TRAFFIC BY PASSENGER OR FREIGHT

Individual Facility Dedicated to Control of Traffic According to Combination of Type of Carriage and Direction Another case of split facilities is the particular method of controlling traffic according to the combination of type of carriage and directional movement. As with before, the execution of entry and exit controls is divided between two border posts, with offi cials from both states conducting joint controls within two control zones but the method of handling exit and entry controls on the traffic is different. A graphical illustration of this method is shown in the figure below, in which the border post on the left is used to process persons entering and exiting State A combined with the processing of commercial goods with respect to exit out of State A and entry into State B. Similarly, the border post on the right is used to process persons entering and exiting State B, as well as processing commercial goods traffic with respect to exit out of State B and entry into State A.

FIGURE:

22

5


SPLIT FACILITIES WITH EXCHANGE OF PERSONNEL - INDIVIDUAL FACILITY DEDICATED TO CONTROL OF TRAFFIC ACCORDING TO PASSENGER/FREIGHT AND DIRECTION

There are several examples of split facilities that are in operation, with most deploying a joint Customs control that is a combination of carriage type and traffic direction. Europe has a few cases. Between Austria and Hungary, the border crossing of Nick elsdorff in Austria and Heygeshalom in Hungary has such an operation. Also, along the border between Germany and the Czech Republic, the border crossings between Schmiding and Cheb as well as Philippsreut and Strazn have similar operations. In the Baltic region of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, this configuration is also deployed on the borders between Latvia and Lithuania and Latvia and Estonia. Each border h as three joint Customs control stations. At the Latvia and Lithuania border, these stations are loc ated at the crossings between Gricgale and Souvainiskis, Medumi and Zarasai, and Meitene and Joniskis, while on the Latvia and Estonia border the stations are located at the crossings between Ainazi and Ikla, Veclaicene and Murati, and Valka and Valga. In the application of split facilities by the Baltic countries, Customs control is directed at import traffic entering the country. Operations include interaction with the frontier gu ards, who usually start the process by first inspecting oncoming individuals and vehicles. This is then followed by Customs inspection of the country of exit, and subsequently by Customs inspection of the country of entry. Documents are passed over from one Customs to another by hand. The control process is undertaken manually and sequentially (or nearly simultaneously).

2.1.10 ENABLING NATIONAL LEGISLATION The notion of single-stop inspection requiring Customs officials from both c ountries to execute the control process for import and export goods at the same time (or nearly simultaneously) within a common area where Customs offices of both administrations are established usually poses an institutional problem for Customs administrations. This is because existing national laws of countries usually do not contain provisions for foreign Customs officials to perform the control process according to foreign l aws in their territory nor for their own Customs officials to perform the control process in the foreign countrys territory. As a result, the different Customs

23


administrations are not empowered with the authority to perform such functions unless new laws permit them to do so. Many of the countries that have undertaken joint Customs control, or are preparing to do so, have confronted this situation. While the political systems of these countries vary, each country has recognized that national laws have to change to incorporate new provisions that accommodate Customs functions to be performed extraterritorially. Hence, an enabling legislative framework is necessary to facilitate this change. This legal framework rests on a foundation comprising the following: y

y

An international (or bilateral) agreement on joint controls between two or more states sharing a common border; and Adequate national legislation supporting the implementation of joint controls.

The first is a condition requiring national governments to conclude an international agreement either through multilateral agreements or bilateral arrangements. The majority of countries that have embarked on joint Customs control have either ratified one or several of the international conventions (Kyoto Convention of 1974, Kyoto 2000 or Harmonization Convention of 1982). There is also a minority of countries that have not followed this path, choosing instead to enter into bilateral agreements, notably the CIS countries. In the GMS, none of the countries, with the exception of the Peoples Republic of China, has ratified any of the previously mentioned conventions. Instead GMS countries (including China) have chosen to become contracting states to the Agreement and are now in the process of concluding the various Annexes in the Agreement. In other words, GMS countries are in the process of completing the first part of the foundation. The second is a condition relating to the adequacy of national legislation to support the implementation of joint Customs control. Generally, an international agreement only acquires the force of law if it is enacted by national legislation. In this particular case, the question is whether joint Customs control needs to enjoy national legal force. International experience affirms this need since the principal motivation in introducing joint controls is to enable customs officers to perform most, if not all, of their functions jointly with foreign counterparts. This is because existing Customs functions have a statutory basis that is mandated by existing law and as a result any new agreement providing for Customs functions to be performed jointly must also enjoy legal force. If the provisions of an agreement are not given legal force, the actions of officers undertaken in terms of an agreement could face legal challenges. Given this situation, an international agreement to implement true joint controls can acquire legal for ce in a country in one of two ways: The agreement is approved by the countrys legislative body by resolution, if it is s elfexecuting; or The agreement is enacted through the adoption of legislation. y

y

In practice, the approach is dependent on the content of the international agreement itself. If it is sufficiently detailed to be self-executing, it is po ssible to obtain approval by resolution and, hence, not require any further enactment into national law. This approach is obviously advantageous, as it would shorten the time period required in obtaining legislative approval.

24


In the event that the agreement is not self-executing and can only b e implemented through the enactment of further legislative provisions, it will be necessary to adopt separate legislation for this purpose. Even so, this legislative effort may be minimized by amplifying current Customs laws to be sufficiently enabling to support the impl ementation of the international agreement, without the need for f urther legislative amendment. Internationally, the experience suggests that most countries do adopt and amplify national laws in order to implement joint customs controls. Whether GMS countries, as contracting parties to the Agreement, can adopt this approach depends on the adaptability of the existing legal framework of Customs administrations. To the extent that the existing legal fr amework is adaptable, it is advantageous to incorporate provisions that have the necessary flexibility to permit the implementation of any one or more of the various models in joint Customs control. The provisions that would be necessary for enabling legislation in support of joint customs control would cover, but are not limited to, the following: Establishment of Customs Facilities Permission (with applicable conditions) to establish a customs office (a place of entry) outside the borders of the country and a foreign customs administration to establish a customs office within the territory of the country. Powers and Duties of Customs Officials Scope of authority of national customs officials in foreign territories and, similarly, the authority of foreign officials in the national territory. Immunities and Privileges Diplomatic protection to Customs officials stationed in foreign territory and, reciprocally, foreign officials stationed within the country. Protection also extended to the offices and buildings that are fully dedicated for use by foreign officials. Institutional Arrangement Establishment of national committee comprising representatives of government departments involved at a border post, including private sector stakeholders, tasked with overseeing the implementation of an in ternational agreement on joint controls. Offences and Penalties Prosecution of local and foreign Customs officials of any act, which constitutes an offence, in terms of the countrys Customs or other laws. Regulations Rule-making authority of designated government representative (such as Minister) in respect of: Establishment of customs offices outside the country and the establishment of foreign customs offices in the country; Definition of goods that are subject to joint customs controls; Persons or classes of persons who are the object of joint controls; Powers and duties of an officer performing outside the territory; Powers and duties of a foreign customs officer performing in the territory. (www.adb.org_Projects_TradeFacilitation_Documents_SingleStopInspectionPaperforADB) y

y

y

y

y

y

2.2

THE COORDINATED BORDER MANAGEMENT

25


2.2.1 DEFINING COORDINATED BORDER MANAGEMENT (CBM) Coordinated border management is the organisation and supervision of border agency control activities to meet the common challenge of facilitating the movement of legitimate people and goods while maintaining secure borders and meeting national legal requirements (World Bank Group 2005). According to the World Bank Group, coordinated border management requires a clear delineation of responsibilities for goods and people. The UK Governments 2007 border review, Security in a Global Hub (Cabinet Office, UK 2007), groups border activities into Border Control  processing people and goods moving across the border, and Protective Security  protecting the people using and working at borders, border infrastructure and means of transport. In the case of border control, the processing of people is usually the responsibility of the immigration agency and takes place within immigration policies and laws. The pro cessing of goods is usually the responsibility of the customs agency and takes place on the basis of policies and laws on international trade, revenue, and those applicable to the international trade in goods. Protective security is usually provided by the police and transport security agencies. In addition to these activities and role players, other bodies have an interest including the armed forces, health authorities, the trade ministry, and transportation authorities. Increasingly, the attention is shifting to international coordination of border activities, not only national coordination. These activities include the establishment of one stop border posts between neighbouring countries and virtual integration where border agencies of countries engage in the advance electronic transmission of data or, to prevent duplication, undertake inspections on behalf of each other through mutual recognition arrangements.

2.2.1 SIMPLIFICATION AND HARMONISATION BORDER PROCESSES Very often, border procedures are outdated as they are complicated and based on the use of paper documents. Countries have started to review existing policies and procedures on the basis of international conventions such as the World Customs Organizations (WCO) Revised Kyoto Convention and international best practice to ensure that procedures are simplified and incorporate modern techniques including the extensive use of risk management and information technology. Broad consideration of internationally accepted standards and best practice foresees: y

y

y y y

Alignment with international and regional clearance and admissibility information requirements, including the WCOs Data Model5. A single window interface for advance information reporting for comprehensive government risk management and regulatory purposes. Use of advance information for goods, people and conveyances Transnational tracking of people and goods through systems interconnectivity Use of non-intrusive inspection of goods and travellers moving through ports of entry and exit.

Supply chain management The supply chain is the continuous linking of activities that take place for the systematic movement of goods from place of origin to the place of final destination. To facilitate international trade, the supply chain must first be secured. Securing the supply chain raises

26


issues around the physical movement of goods between places and operators within the supply chain. Unless the consignments onward movement can be satisfactorily monitored throughout its export or import transportation leg, no amount of advance information will provide any guarantee about its integrity.

Use of modern techniques and technology Essentially, this entails adopting a ri sk-based approach and supporting technology, deploying enabling technology and tools and facilitating people and goods movements through appropriate accreditation.

Facilitation of legitimate trade and people movement This is underpinned by a risk-based approach based on a comprehensive understanding of client activities and risk profiles. Internationally, accreditation schemes are available for both legitimate people and goods movement. Accreditation can be offered subject to meeting additional criteria that enable reduced risk rating in return for a package of benefits including simplified clearance and periodic accounting.

Emergence of new border management institutional arrangements Internationally, a number of countries have or are in the process of reviewing their border management institutional arrangements to support their new operational i mperatives. Recent examples include the establishment of the Bureau for Customs and Border Protection in the United States, the Canada Border Services Agency and the Border A gency in the United Kingdom (UK).

2.2.3 WHOLE OF GOVERNMENT APPROACH The multiplicity of state agencies with a responsibility for or interest in border matters demands that the establishment of one stop border posts should proceed with the active involvement of all role players. The starting point is for the agencies to converge on all the main underpinnings of the one stop border post concept such as the aims, legal issues, preferred model and mode of operation, process, people and systems issues. Some of these may need to be fine-tuned or revisited as negotiations and more detailed work proceed. Very often these policy and strategy deliberations are managed by inter-agency border coordination structures. Given the sensitivity and complexity of the issues at hand, it is n ecessary to secure political support by providing regular updates to relevant ministers and requesting political guidance. This approach should then be extended bilaterally to the two participating states. It is advisable that sufficient energy be invested upfront to develop a co mmon understanding of the key issues to avoid later misunderstanding. International experience demonstrates that the full benefits of the one stop concept require all border control functions to be relocated to a one stop facility. However, this approach need not be the starting point. There is no reason why two customs administrations could not agree to implement joint customs controls while other functions such as immigration continue in the two stop manner. At border posts processing l arge volumes of commercial traffic, even such limited cooperation may already translate into significant time saving and effi ciency gains. A two track approach can, therefore, be followed whereby Customs-to-Customs joint controls are

27


implemented in the short term, pending the relocation of the remaining border functions in the longer term. This model also enables the participating states and agencies to test a model and learn lessons that could be applied when the one stop concept is extended to other functions. An interesting variation of the one stop arrangement is applied at border posts between Norway and Sweden where officers of one state are authorised to apply the controls on behalf of the other state in addition to their own controls. This requires a high degree of harmonisation and, especially, trust between the participants. In addition to developing a common bilateral and national vision and strategy, there is a need to closely involve non-government stakeholders from the start. These include traders and their intermediaries such as clearing agents, regular border post users (travellers and transportation service providers), and communities in the proximity of the border post. This is not only essential to secure buy in but also enables stakeholders to contribute to and influence design as well as to prepare for i mplementation.

2.2.4 THE BENEFITS OF CBM y

y

y

y

2.3

At a government level the design and implementation of a CBM system will result in the elimination of contradictions and redundancies between different policies and as a result delivery of policies will be more efficient. It enables government to more efficiently address strategic issues across the border agency sector which may not be captured by individual agencies bringing a system perspective to border management. In the field of law enforcement, a holistic approach to combating organised crime and other similar threats would be facilitated. From a resource perspective, CBM can bring about savings through economies of scale occurring from common ICT systems development, training and pooling of resources.

SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE

THE CONCEPT OF CRITICAL REGIONALISM Critical regionalism is an approach to architecture that strives to counter placelessness and lack of identity in modern architecture by using the buildi ngs geographical context. The term critical Regionalism was first used by architectural theorists Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre and with a slight different meaning by the historian theorist Kenneth Frampton. (http:/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/critical_regionalism) In Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six points for an architecture of resistance, Frampton recalls Paul Ricoeurs how to become modern and return to sources: how to revive an old, dormant civilisation and take part in universal civilisation. According to Framptons proposal, Critical Regionalism should adopt modern architecture, critically, for its universal progressive qualities but at the same time value should be placed on geographical context of the building. Emphasis, Frampton says, should be on topography, climate, light; on tectonic form rather than on scenography (i.e. painting theatrical scenery) which are its governing inspiration and should be on the sense of touch rather than visual sense. The fundamental strategy of Critical regionalism is to mediate the impact of universal civilisation with elements derived indirectly from the peculiarities of a particular place. It is clear that Critical Regionalism depends upon maintaining a high level of critical self-consciousness. However, it is

28


necessary to distinguish between Critical Regionalism and simple-minded attempts to revive the hypothetical forms of a lost vernacular. Frampton draws on phenomenology for his argument. Two examples Frampton briefly discusses are Jorn Utzon and Alvar Aalto. In Framptons view, Utzons Bagsvaerd Church (1973-6), near Copenhagen is a self-conscious synthesis between universal civilisation and world culture. This is revealed by the rational, modular, neutral and economic partly prefabricated concrete outer shell (i.e. universal civilisation) versus the specially designed, uneconomic organic, reinforced concrete shell of the interior, signifying with its manipulation of light sacred space and multiple cross-cultural references, which Frampton sees no precedent for in Western culture, but rather in the Chinese pagoda roof (i.e. world culture).

FIGURE: 1 JORN UTZONS BAGSVAERD CHURCH, NORTH ELEVATION AND SECTION

CROSS& FLOOR PLAN

(http://www.colorado.edu/envd/courses/envd4114001/Spring%2006/Theory/Frampton.pdf )

FIGURE: 1 JORN UTZONS BAGSVAERD CHURCH, INTERIOR IMAGES, INTERNAL SCREEN WALL MOTIF & CONCEPTUAL SKETCHES

(www.en.wikipedia.org; www.e-architecture.co.uk/images; www. architectureabout.com)

29


In the case of Aalto, Frampton discusses the red brick Säynätsalo Town Hall (1952), where, he argues, there is a resistance to universal technology and vision which is effected by using the tactile qualities of the buildings materials. He notes, for instance, feeling the contrast between the friction of the brick surface of the stairs and springly wooden floor of the council chamber.

FIGURE: 1 ALVAR AALTO SÄYNÄTSALO TOWN HALL, ELEVATION VIEWS & FLOOR PLAN

The grass steps appeal to the tactile sense (http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/saynatsalo/1.jpg)

EXAMPLES OF CRITICAL REGIONALISM IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGION a. THE EASTGATE SHOPING COMPLEX

Frampton describes Critical Regionalism a a term that

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2.3.1 HISTORICAL STYLES OF SOUTHERN AFRICAN ARCHITECTURE INTRODUCTION The Southern African sub-continent is the home of a rich and varied architectural tradition. Not only does this include a wide range of indigenous built environments but the influx of white immigrants, from 1652 onwards, also ensured that many of the styles emerging in Europe, America and Asia during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries found reflection in local buildings. In spite of these apparently disparate roots however, South African architecture has, nonetheless, achieved a wider homogeneity, being united by a common concern towards climate and materials, and an ability, on the part of local builders, to adapt, adopt and reinterpret the building forms and textures of other cultures. In the process they have also given them new meaning in terms of local values and building customs. This has given rise to numerous cases of crosscultural pollination. The trims of Victorian colonial buildings, for example, have been reinterpreted by local artists and incorporated into their traditional decorative patterns; the rural use of exterior space has influenced the growth of an urban verandah, porch and patio tradition; and the European medieval "longhouse", imported to the Cape by early white settlers, adapted to local conditions and spread throughout the region to become a house form common to black and white farmers alike. (Southern African regional architecture  httpfrancofrescura.co.zahistorical-conservation-styles.html) This thesis is going to study the distinct cultural Architecture styles that have been developed in the region over time and they will be classified according to the respective ethnic groups that live within the Southern African region. It is important to note that this does not represent a holistic study of all ethnic groups within the region but is a select number that is broadly representative of the generality of what is being termed a regional architecture

THE EUROCENTRIC ARCHITECTURAL STYLES Eurocentric architectural styles were imported from the native countries of the migrating Europeans over time since they started settling in the region from the Cap e of Good Hope coming into the interior. A number of local hybrid styles were also developed by these immigrants as a response to the local building materials available and the climatic requirements. Below are some of the architectural styles that have been used: Cape Dutch Architecture. Cape Dutch Revivalism. Cast Iron Architecture. Corbelled Stone Architecture. Corrugated Architecture. Edwardian Architecture. English Settler Architecture. Georgian Architecture. Highveld Dwelling. Prefabricated Architecture. Victorian Architecture. y y y y y y y y y y y

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CAPE DUTCH ARCHITECTURE A regional style of domestic architecture evolved in the Cape Colony by Dutch (which is a domestic form derived from the European medieval "longhouse" tradition, prevalent in countries surrounding the North Sea), Flemish and Huguenot settlers during the seventeenth, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was based upon a short span gabled roof and symmetrical plans, usually with an I, T, H or U configuration. Farmhouses were largely single storied with thick lime-washed walls and relatively narrow and well- disposed door and window openings. Roofs were thatched with local reed and terminated by characteristic gables, the latter undergoing, over the years, a number of stylistic changes. Town houses could reach two storeys in height and, after th e 1750s, were invariably flat-roofed.

FIGURE: 1 EARLY "BAROQUE" GABLES AT JOOSTENBERG, HANZENDAL, MORGENSTER & VERGELEGEN.

(Ad apted by Beverley Hui, from H.Fransen & M.Cook, The Ol d Houses of the Cape, 1965, A. A Balkema / Cape Town / Amster d am)

CAPE DUTCH REVIVALISM Began in southern Africa during the late 1890s and lasted through until the early 1930s. The architecture of this period is marked by the reintroduction of such elements as small-paned timber sash windows and, more generally, the poor re-interpretation of the earlier gable tradition. Perhaps the most prominent of its proponents was Herbert Baker who, following his arrival at the Cape in 1892, began to use the buildings of early Dutch settlers as inspiration for many of his designs.

FIGURE: 1 A CAPE DUTCH REVIVAL BUILDING IN GRAAF REINET.

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(www.andrewcusack.com/2011/03/23/graaff-reinet/) CAST IRON ARCHITECTURE Cast iron is a term generally applied to pig-iron which has been re-melted in a crucible, or furnace, and cast into moulds. It began to find architectural applications in Europe from 1815 onwards and reached the Cape as early as 1820. During the Victorian era it was most commonly used in such elements as decorative trims and motiefs, windows, balcony pieces and street lamps, although its strength under compression made it pre-eminently suitable for columns and structural supports. It also found use in the field of prefabricated building where structures framed in cast iron members and clad with corrugated iron sheeting were exported by Britain to its colonial markets. CORRUGATED ARCHITECTURE Derisory term applied during the colonial era to timber framed dwellings clad in corrugated iron sheeting. It was also sometimes referred to as Ironic Architecture. This material was introduced in England during the late 1830s in the form of cast sheets and reached this country in the mid or late1840s. Its relatively light weight made it an ideal material for the production and export of prefabricated housing to the colonial markets of India, Australia and South Africa. EDWARDIAN ARCHITECTURE Although a large measure of overlap may be perceived to have occurred between Victorian Eclecticism and the Edwardian era, the latter period was generally marked by a simplification of building styles and of applied decoration. Structures conformed to neo-classical principles using such elements as roof parapets, pedimented windows and imposing porticos supported by classical columns. In domestic architecture sash windows were replaced by casement openings, verandahs became simpler and greater use was made of plaster work, pargeting and mouldings. ENGLISH SETTLER ARCHITECTURE A modified English vernacular tradition brought by B ritish settlers to the Eastern Cape region after the 1820s. Farm buildings were generally single storied but town houses often reached two floors. Walls were thick and built in stone and the ridged roof, thatched or tiled, was terminated at either-end by simple linear parapet gables. In many instances fireplaces were located at either end of the building and the resultant chimney flue projecting through the gable apex gave it its characteristic square capping. Subsequently, when buildings began to be erected with only one fireplace, placed either centrally or at one end of the dwelling, the square capped gable was often retained as a stylistic feature. GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE 33


A style of construction imported to the Cape by colonial administrators after the British annexation of the Colony from the Dutch in 1806. Based upon a Palladian interpretation of classical principles popular in England at that time, its careful proportioning, dignity of form and elegant interiors struck a responsive chord in Cape society whose distance from Europe made the importation of luxuries prohibitively expensive. It was typified by a plain facade treatment, parapeted roof lines, regular fenestration and, apart from an elaboration of the main entrance, a virtual absence of applied fenestration and, apart from an elaboration of the main entrance, a virtual absence of applied decoration. HIGHVELD DWELLING Rectangular plan structure, usually a single cell covered by a lean-to roof falling to the rear of the building from a raised parapet facade. Historically this domestic form originated in Cape Town during the latter half of the eighteenth century where it subsequently also became associated with Malay or slave dwellings. Its form and constructional technology made it a highly efficient residential form in warm, dry climates such as that of the Karoo where it flourished during the nineteenth century. It became associated with the Trekboer culture of that era and was transplanted to the highveld by Dutch farmers emigrating there after 1836. During that time it also became associated with the Griquas of the Northern Cape. The introduction of corrugated iron in the southern African interior after the 1860's assisted in its spread and after the Anglo-Boer conflict of 1899-1902 it became associated with Afrikaner rural culture. During the 1940s it beg an to be adopted by black farmers on the highveld where it predominates to the present day. In more recent times however, it has also become associated with urban squatter camps such as those found at Thaba 'Nchu in the OFS and Winterveld near Pretoria. PREFABRICATED ARCHITECTURE The concept of prefabricating buildings within a factory environment appears to have begun in Britain during the early years of the nineteenth century when colonial expansion created a ready market for during the early years of the nineteenth century when colonial expansion created a ready market for high quality transportable housing. Although these structures were initially in timber, the subsequent introduction of industrialised building elements such as corrugated sheeting and cast iron served to enlarge and enrich the ra nge of textures and forms possible under such a system of construction. VICTORIAN ARCHITECTURE Although the Victorian era was typified by an exuberant and richly textured architecture, much of this character relied upon the use of applied decoration. At first it largely took the form of fretted timber work, used in verandah trims, barge boards, gable fini als and loft ventilators but the subsequent availability of mass produced cast iron work also g ave added richness to roof lines and verandahs. Although there was an initial tendency to "modernise" previous Cape Dutch and Georgian dwellings by the addition of front and rear verandahs, a wide range of domestic and public buildings were also erected. Their style is better known for its eclecticism, including elements freely drawn from such varied sources as Medieval Gothic, Italian Romanesque and Byzantine traditions.

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Wide use was also made of ornamented chimneys, bay windows, sash timber frames, roof ventilators and patterned brickwork, particularly after the 1870s and the discovery of diamonds and gold deposits in the southern African interior.

THE INDEGENOUS AFROCENTRIC ARCHITECTURAL STYLES The creation of an indigenous architecture in Southern Africa has always been part of a larger process whereby both the individual dwelling unit and the larger homestead or village derive their existence from the found and natural materials of the physical environment. They use their immediate surrounds as a ready quarry for the timber, the stones, the clay and the grass required for their construction. Indigenous African styles have evolved over time as form of a natural progression kind of developed architectural styles as the people tried to come up with designs that answer the different regional climatic conditions experienced. Below are some of the peculiar forms of indigenous architecture found in the Southern African region: KHOIKHOI-SAN ARCHITECTURE The Khoikhoi were migrant pastoralists who, before the arrival of whi te settlers to southern Africa, inhabited the Cape, Orange Free State and southern Botswana. Whilst the San were an indigenous group of migrant hunter-gatherers who inhabited the southern African region up to the early part of the nineteenth century. In keeping with their economic system their dwellings were easily dismountable and transportable, consisting of a hemispherical framework of saplings overlaid by r eed matting or animal skins. Such structures were also known to the Dutch settlers as maanjiehuise, believed to mean "small, moon houses". The Khoikhoi, together with the San, are also known to have used another form of transportable housing, consisting of a reed mat arched into a barrel vault pegged at either end, with a second mat being placed upright in a semi-circle behind it, thus creating a wind break. However, the San architecture also included rock caves, overhangs and temporary shelters made out of branches and clumps of vegetation. THE NGUNI ARCHITECTURE The Nguni are pastoral tribes, ethnically part of the greater Bantu group occupying much of the East and Southern parts of Africa. These include the following tribal groups: The Matabele/Ndebele. The Swazi. The Xhosa. The Zulu. The Nguni architectural traditions make extensive use of the hemispherical grass covered beehive form of dwellings sited in wide circular settlements about a central cattle byre. In more recent times these have given way to grass thatched roundavels. However the architecture has evolved and has borrowed a number of elements from the urban styl es that were introduced by the European colonialists and it has achieved a large degree of homogeneity. y y y y

The roundavel architecture that made use of circular dwellings with a verandah running about the external perimeter has been dominant since the end of the beehive era but in recent years 35


these have largely been superseded by square plan, lean-to, parapet structures, much like those found on the southern highveld. Different wall tessellations have been devised by the women for example, since the 1940s the South Ndebele women have developed a distinctive style of polychromatic wall art which draws deeply from the patterns of urban life they have observed in the towns. Whilst Xhosa women have been using whitewash monochromatic patterns upon their residence facades since the mid-1920s. THE PEDI, SOTHO AND TSWANA ARCHI TECTURE Traditionally they built grass beehive dwellings with extended, snout-like entrances but since the 1920s it has undergone widespread change and today the th atched cone on cylinder and the lean-to highveld house rival each other for pre-eminence. The latter dwellings often display richly decorated facades. The thatched cones on cylinder dwellings are surrounded about the perimeter by a wide verandah and their settlements followed a characteristic circular fan shape with a central cattle byre which also served as a meeting place for the men as well as an area of burial and religious worship. SHONA AND VENDA ARCHIECTURE The Shona are a group of people indigenous to Zimbabwe, although in the past their l ands are thought to have included large areas of the northern Limpopo Province in South Africa. The Venda are also currently believed to be part of a larger Shona grouping. An cient Shona architectural culture is predominantly widespread traditions of building in stone. Two broad categories of these traditions have been noted: The Zimbabwean style, and The Transvaal Free State style y y

The earliest known stone structures are Mapungubwe. Mapungubwe is the first Southern African culture to display economic diff erentiation. Architecturally, the elite were separated on a mountain settlement, made of sandstone. At the bottom of the hill was a natural amphitheatre and at the top elite graveyard. There was only two path-way to the top, one was a narrow steep cleft along the side of the hill which observers at the top had a clear view. Great Zimbabwe is the largest medieval city in sub-Saharan Africa. It was constructed and expanded for more than 300 years in a local style that eschewed rectilinearity for flowing curves. Great Zimbabwe is set apart from the other 300 similar complexes located on the Zimbabwean plateau by the terrific scale of its structure. It consists of 3 distinct zones which are the Hill Complex, the Valley ruins and the Great Enclosure. Great Enclosure is the most impressive of the 3, it features dressed stone walls as high as 36 feet (11 m) extending approximately 820 feet (250 m), making it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. Houses within the enclosure were circular and constructed of wattle and daub, with conical thatched roofs. Other notable stone structures are the Thulamela and Khami ruins. Thulamela was a counterpart of Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe that displayed similar architectural design and method. Khami was the capital of the Torwa State and the successor of Great Zimbabwe.

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The techniques of Great Zimbabwe were further refined and developed at Khami. Elaborate walls were constructed by connecting carefully cut stones forming terraced hills. The traditional Shona architecture has been the grass thatched roundavel hut ever since stone constructions were ceased. The architecture features broad eaves supported by a timber and wattle wall that is plastered using a mixture of mud and cow dung. The homestead comprises of huts sited in a circular layout with the most public space (hut) f acing the entrance thoroughfare. The Venda traditional architecture is perhaps best noted for its broad eaves, often supported by verandah posts running the full perimeter of a cone on cylinder dwelling, and the use of stone in the construction of fortified villages for local chiefs and headmen. Wall decorations painted by women feature strongly on the perimeter walls of their homesteads which differ markedly from the circular pattern predominant throughout the rest of southern Africa. SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONTEMPORARY SOUTHERN AFRICAN RURAL SETTLEMENTS The idea of "rural settlement" as a series of huts placed haphazardly over the southern African countryside is plainly mistaken. Not only is the indigenous homestead subject to a number of principles which govern the distribution of its constituent parts but such principles may be interpreted to represent a cognitive and unspoken language which involves not only the social, political, economic, sexual, inheritance and religious values of the people concerned but, in many ways also acts as a mirror to their cosmological beliefs as a whole (Frescura, 1985: 349363). As such therefore, it may be concluded that the usage of space within the domestic settlement represents a more reliable guideline to cultural pattern and group identity than other elements, such as dwelling form and decorative motif, which historical research has proved to be open to pragmatic manipulation (Frescura, 1987: 263-271). The principles or, the vocabulary of such a l anguage of settlement are based upon the following factors: General architectural form and governing axes. Aspect and direction of approach and orientation. Hierarchical determination and the relationships existing between husband and wife (or wives), parents and children, family and visitors, domestic unit and community. Inheritance patterns. The architectural expression of territorial statements, common spaces, work areas and privacy. Areas of interaction between the individual family unit and the community as a whole. Position of byre and other animal enclosures. Position of cooking facilities and attendant work functions. Location of burial areas and places of religious significance. Other considerations such as seating hierarchies, and spatial divisions determined by sex and age. y y y

y y

y y y y y

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CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDIES 3.1

CHIRUNDU BORDER POST

INTRODUCTION Chirundu is situated between Zimbabwe and Zambia and is the second busiest border post on the North South Corridor after Beitbridge, which is between Zimbabwe and South Afric a. Chirundu links South Africa to its northern countries. South Africa is the largest African Trading partner in the region. Chirundu handles an average of 268 trucks per day, translating to 96 840 trucks per annum. (Mwapachu J, 2009, speech during the official launch of the Chirundu One Stop Border Post). This number is expected to have been even higher before the decline of the Zimbabwean economy.(Curtis B, 2009). It is the main entry point for commercial traffic entering Zambia from South Africa and other commercial ports to the South, or proceeding through to Central and Eastern Africa to the north. It is a strategic location and acts as a node of trade between Southern and Eastern Africa and it plays a critical role as a gateway between two busy regions. All these attributes have made it to be chosen as a pilot project under the North South corridor. The busy border points like Nekonde and Beitbridge are characterized by congestions, duplicated efforts and delays in processing of goods and people, issues that the Chirundu OSBP is trying to address. International organisations like the World Customs Organisation (WCO), the World B ank and other agencies to be specific to Chirundu Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and United Kingdoms Department for International Development (DFID) have championed coordinated border management with the aim of reducing the costs of moving goods across borders. Financial and technical support for the implementation of the Chirundu OSBP was provided by DFID and JICA. Chirundu OSBP addresses the challenges which are bought by customs administration. Customs administrations are a major component in the efficiency of international trade because they process every single consignment to ensure compliance with national regulatory requirements and international multilateral trading rules. It is critical that while customs administrations have to discharge the mission of revenue collection, protection of society and safeguarding security of trade supply chain, they also have to strive for increased trade facilitation to promote investment and reduce poverty (WCO Council 2003). The establishment of Chirundu OSBP has brought tremendous changes on the operations at the border. (acknowledgement) 3.1.1

PROCEDURES AT CHIRUNDU OSBP

Before the operation of OSBP, people or trucks used to go through customs, immigration and other formalities at each border post. The customs official used to operate on their own countries border post. Trucks for example means were inspected of goods twice at the Zimbabwean and Zambian side. Below is a pictorial depiction of this situation: Figure 2: The old Border Control system at Chirundu

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Figure 1: Average Transit Times Through Chirundu (hours) for the old border system

The introduction of the Chirundu OSBP has changed these procedures as: - The staffs of an authority (for example customs) of both countries are now stationed in on e set of offices and on one side of the border. Officials from the two countries will be sitting side by side in one building on the two border posts. - The driver of the truck, or the traveller, is attended to by such an authority of both countries in one place. - In the case of customs, the vehicle and its load are inspected by the authorities of both countries, one after the other. The trucks are now only to queue once, on one side of the border. OSBP brings great difference on how the trucks/traders are being cleared to cross the borders. Those who are Northbound are only cleared on the Zambia side and those who are south bound are cleared from the Zimbabwean side. Table 1 below gives an example of procedures 40


that were and now being followed by northbound heavy vehicle traffic. As can be seen from that table there are now less procedures required to cross the border f rom the one stop border post than those required before its implementation. All north bound traffic bypasses the Zimbabwe border and will be cleared on the Zambian border. On the same note South bound heavy vehicles and traders (travellers) will be cleared on the Zimbabwean side hence they will bypass Zambia border post. It is therefore clear that a one-stop border saves on processes and henceforth reduces delays that used to exist on these two border post. Table1: Procedures for Northbound heavy vehicle traffic

PREVIOUS TWO BORDER POSTS ZIMBABWE SIDE 1. Driver finds parking for truck on main road. 2. Driver hands in documents for load to clearing agent 3. Driver clears immigration and gets a gate pass 4. Clearing agent checks documents for accuracy and correct supporting documentation prior to submission to customs for clearance 5. Customs issues Release Order and documents returned to agent for truck to be released and gate pass stamped 6. Truck moves through border post after being weighed and crosses bridge

CURRENT ONE STOP BORDER POST

1. After being weighed, truck bypasses Zimbabwe border post and crosses bridge

ZAMBIA SIDE 7. Driver finds parking for truck beyond the border post 8. Driver hands in documents for load to clearing agent 9. Driver clears immigration and gets a gate pass 10. Clearing agent checks documents for accuracy and correct supporting documentation prior to submission to customs for clearance

2. Driver parks in truck parking area

11. Duties paid by agent

6. Duties paid by agent/s

12. Customs issues Release Order and documents returned to agent for truck to be released 13. Driver pays Zambian road user charge and insurance fee

7. Both customs authorities issue Release Orders and documents returned to agent/s for truck to be released 8. Driver pays Zambian road user charge, insurance fee and any other fees

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3. Driver hands in documents for load to clearing agent/s 4. Driver clears both immigration authorities and gets gate pass 5. Clearing agent/s checks documents for accuracy and correct supporting documentation prior to submission to both customs authorities for clearance


14. Gate pass stamped by customs

9. Gate pass stamped by both customs authorities Trucks proceeds to Lusaka

Trucks proceeds to Lusaka Source: Curtis, 2009 and updated As shown above the procedures required to be followed by truck drivers before the implementation of Chirundu OSBP were many about 14 but after the implementation they are about 9. This shows tremendous reduction in time and effort required to cross the border. (http://www.tradescentre.org.zw/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=65&Itemid= 32) Below is a pictorial depiction of the OSBP as explained above: Figure 4: Configuration of OSBP

3.1.2

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

The introduction of the Chirundu OSBP has bought many opportunities and challenges as discussed below. OPPORTNITIES The Chirundu OSBP has brought a lot of benefits to the trading community. It addresses trade facilitation deficit that has been faced on this border post. These trade facilitation deficits are people driven and related to cumbersome customs procedures, bureaucratic behaviour and 42


corruption tendencies. A recent World Bank Study showed that only 25% of the supply chain high costs are attributable to poor physical infrastructure, while 75% of costs distortions are contributed by what are described as soft infrastructure deficits such as streamlining of border post procedures (Trade law Centre for Southern Africa, 2009). Chir undu one border post tries to address these related costs. The opportunities are as discussed below. Red uces

supply chain transactions costs Before the implementation of Chirundu OSBP it took 2-3 days for a haulage truck to cross the Chirundu Border posts. It has been reported that it originally cost about US$140 per day in fixed costs and drivers time. For three days the costs per truck was US$ 420. With the operation of Chirundu OSBP these costs will be saved as it is estimated that each truck should not take more than 2 hours to cross and only 15 minutes for fast track pre-cleared traffic. From The estimation by COMESA, the potential cost saving per annum will be about US$486 million. (Mwapachu, 2009, on official launch of Chirundu OSBP). It was also computed that Beitbridge and Chirundu delays (before the operation of Chirundu OSBP) could be equivalent to a 25 percent surcharge on transport costs along the North South corridor (Teravaninthorn and Raballand, 2009). More broadly, Francois, van Meijl, and van Tongeren (2003) estimates that a 1.5 percent reduction of trade-related transaction costs would result in a $78 billion increase in global welfare and finally according to a study by Walkenhorst and Yasui (2003), welfare gains as a result of a 1 percent reduction in trade-related transaction costs are estimated to amount to about US$40 billion worldwide. All these studies are indicating the importance of reducing transaction costs. Chirundu OSBP greatly tries to reduce these costs. General discussion with truck drivers and traders has indicated that since the start of the operation of Chirundu OSBP time spending waiting for papers to be processed has been reduced. United Kingdoms Department for International Development (DFID) says once the single stop becomes operational, delays at Chirundu will fall by 30-50% and that a reduction in waiting times will reduce costs for businesses and increase their competitiveness by ensuring that products reach markets faster. According to, Teravaninthorn and Raballand, (2008), th ey calculated that the reduction in these delays (at port and border) vehicle yearly mileage should improve by at least 30,000 kilometers along the North-South Corridor. The mileage for trucks passing through Chirundu OSBP, has improved since the delays have been significantly reduced. Pre-cleared trucks are not spending time at the border and o ther trucks are not spending a day to be cleared. This is a great benefit to the business community as this reduces costs of doing business. Increased / higher trad e flows One stop border post ensures that countries are able to participate in the international arena by ensuring efficient and effective movement of both people and goods through their borders. Volume of trade increases whether it is on formal or informal (informal cross border traders) basis. Through general discussion of cross border traders and some truck driv ers, they appreciate the fastness that is being enjoyed at the border. Trucks are now being cleared easily, making goods to move fast. On the motor traffic section, buses are now stopping only once on either the Zimbabwean side (southbound) or Zambian side (north bound) and cleared easily. There is great noticeable efficient different with this one stop b order post. However as will be mentioned on challenges the bonds section and commercial section may still be facing challenges. The major point is that the activities of cross border traders have been increased with this fastness in clearing and customs procedures. Trade in goods increases henceforth. 43


Increased revenue Increased volume of goods traded translates to more revenue to the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority (ZIMRA) and Zambia Revenue Authority (ZRA). This mainly stems from both the increased trading of informal cross border traders and formal traders. Trucks enjoys the less distorted supply chains hence they are now enjoying good facilitation at the border entry points meaning they now opt to use the Chirundu OSBP instead of other borders/routes for example via Groblers Brug/Martins Drift and Francistown, Botswana. General indications gathered are that the volumes of trucks passing through Chirundu has since increased. This is expected to continue increasing as the Zimbabwean economy recovers. As trade increases it means also the increases in tariff that can be charged on dutiable goods. Zambia revenue at Chirundu OSBP has been reported to have increased by 30% since the inception of the 1 Chirundu OSBP (Mutati F, 2010) . Red uction

in the prices of consumer good s As ascertained above, the reduction in transactions cost will therefore entail that goods and services being transacted will be reduced also. Cost such as demurrage, additional driver allowance and delays in deliveries is reduced. On the official opening SADC Executive Secretary, Dr Tomaz Salamao asserted that all the cost arising from border crossing inefficiencies are always passed to unsuspecting customers and OSBP will therefore bring relief to the customers. The accumulated cost reduction of doing business will henceforth boost competitiveness of the regions industries and agriculture. As the costs of doing business is reduced it will means that business will charge low prices also for their goods. Consumers in the long run will buy goods at a reasonable price. Investment and Economic growth Economic theory posits that increased openness enhances economic growth. Due to increased trade this will promote investment and economic growth. The OSBP stimulates economic activity. This will result even in the upgrading of facilities at Chirundu like hotels and lodges. More trucks will favour using this North South corridor through Chirundu enhancing activities at the border. On national economies this will speed trade which will also increases investment and hence the growth of the economies. As a result of this increased activity (trade) poverty will be reduced. This is more even with specific reference to informal traders who are now finding it easy to cross the border. They enjoy the improved trading conditions making them to trade more and ultimately enhancing their livelihoods. Duplication of efforts red uced Chirundu Border post has over 15 government agencies (for example police, immigration, customs, ministry of transport, ministry of Agriculture and ministry of Health) in total for both governments enforcing various pieces of legislation (Regional Trade Facility Programme, 2009). Traders be it formal or informal cross borders were required by law to comply with all the various pieces of legislation separately on both sides of the border. The previous process 1

Information found on Zambia Daily Mail on this website: http://www.dailymail.co.zm/media/news/viewnews.cgi

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before the opening of OSBP was highly duplicated and cumbersome and invertible leads to delays and confusion at the border. However with coming of OSBP duplication has been reduced. As most of the operations at border will be done with official sitting in one building on either side of the border it means duplication of efforts will be reduced. For example buses are now making one stop on entry into one of the two countries instead of two stop that were done before the formation of OSBP. This has greatly reduced duplication of activities. The OSBP facilitates quicker border clearance process and limits duplication of border agencies interventions. Social Ad vantage

Public health research reveals that there is close association between high incidences of HIV/AIDS transmission and delays at border crossings of h aulage trucks. According to the findings from Family Health International, (2010), based on careful observation, enumeration in guesthouses, bars and streets, and interviews with health work ers and peer educators, the researchers estimated that Chirundu has approximately 100 permanent sex workers and another 200 transient sex workers. These mobile sex workers visit Chirundu from Makuti, Karoi, Kariba and rural Hurungwe at peak times, usually when convoys of trucks transport maize to the Congo and at month's end, when the border is busiest. This is as from the Zimbabwean side. They find similar numbers from the Zambian side. They found out that truckers are central to HIV transmission dynamics in Chirundu. The number of trucks passing through Chirundu monthly exceeds the town's population. Lengthy delays at the border underpin a large sex industry. With the establishment of one stop border post all these risk will be fundamentally reduced since truck drivers will not spent their time waiting at the border. Though it is not noticeable in the short run in reduction of commercial sex workers, the long run advantages are tremendous. Enhanced bor d er security and trad e chain security Chirundu OSBP addresses the risk/threats brought about by globalisation. It brings enforcement advantages. OSBP ensures that the border authorities from the two countries will perform joint controls. They can actually do joint physical examination of trucks loaded with goods. Globalisation has increased the complexity of managing borders not only through increased trade and travel and complex rules but through the emergence of new threats. Naim (2005), pointed out that in addition to terrorism, it is now being recognised that global criminal activities are transforming the international system and that borders create profit opportunities for smuggling networks and weaken nation-states by limiting their ability to curb the onslaughts of the global networks that hurt their economies, corrupt their politics, and undermine their institutions. This is of concern to all states and especially to developing countries that require strong and effective state agencies to build their economies and deliver much-needed services to their communities. The new operational environment ensures a coordinated border management approach, providing optimal allocation of resources to one combined set of facilitation and control activities, and consolidating information from all sources to optimize risk management capabilities. This therefore results in improved enforcement efficiencies through sharing of intelligence. They can also combat fraud by enabling the clearance of goods on the basis of a single customs declaration thereby preventing the substitution of one set of documents with another. The point is that security will be enhanced with this one stop border.

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Sharing

of i d eas, information an d experiences The working of the customs official, immigration official police officers from the two countries side by side ensures that there is sharing of ideas, information and experience. This is of great importance since this will speed the activities at the border. Efficiency is enhanced. Official will learn good business practices from their counterparts. This reinforces controls. There will be a merger of business culture between the two countries. Transparent and red uction of opportunities for corruption The more complex and busy a border, the more likely the activities of corruption to take place. Bottlenecks at border points leads to increased corruption cases. This, combined with smuggling practices, creates serious problems for ZRA and ZI MRA, which results in more controls and inspections and subsequent tension between customs and transporters whose trucks are impounded. Trade can therefore be slowed with such tendencies. In general delays in getting a service cause frustration and push people to try to get through corrupt means. In many developing regions, corruption is prevalent at many levels and in different forms fo r example to be specific at customs check points. But with the operation of the OSBP corruption and bribery can be reduced. This is basically because the customs officials from the two countries will be housed in one roof which brings transparency and hence reduction in corruption. Chances of corruption at customs check points can therefore be minimised. Political ties strengthened It has brought the two nations together and also governments and people of Zimbabwe and Zambia. This strengthens the relationship between the two countries. It also strengthens ties in the regional bloc-COMESA and mutual partnership with development partners both on procedures and infrastructure, to serve as a model OSBP in the region. The two countries have strengthened their ties. Integration efforts enhance d Chirundu was championed by COMESA. The three regional blocs have aims at establishing a single Free Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa and OSBP is a step complement the steps in that direction.. The mere opening of the Chirundu is a development which is leading to the harmonisation of the COMESA- SADC-EAC integration programme. This tries to enhance the North South Corridor which tries to link Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and the southern ports of Durban and Port Elizabeth in South Africa. To be specific there are five major regional corridors which interconnect with the North-South corridor: the Maputo, Trans-Kalahari, Nacala, Beira and Dar es Salaam Corridors. Heads of state of the two countries envisages this OSBP as the major stride towards the integration of Africa as outlined in the Abuja Treaty on the creation of the Africa Economic Commission. Even at the launch, to show the enhancement of integration initiatives it was attended by COMESA Secretary General Mr Sindiso Ngwenya, SADC Executive Secretary Dr Tomaz Salomao, and the Secretary-general of the East African Community, Ambassador Juma Mwapachu who is also Chairman of the COMESA-EAC-SADC Tripartite Taskforce. The OSBP may therefore increase the pace towards the realization of th e African Economic Community. 3.1.3

CHALLENGES

The challenges brought about by Chirundu OSBP are so many and are as outlined below. 46


Clearing agent facilities. There are no clearing agent facilities at the control area on the Zimbabwe side. They were not included in the building of the one stop border facility (Curtis, 2009). It is not therefore clear who is to build these facilities. Offices for the clearing agents were not included in the control area. As a result, agents have to be accommodated in facilities that are not up to standard and are more than a kilometer from the border post. Telephone and electricity supplies are very irregular to the agents building. It means that agents have to commute long distances and this includes runners having to cover these distances by foot. (Curtis, 2009). For example on the Zimbabwean border some of the clearing agents are located at Chirundu motel. This is too far which may be time consuming to move from that place to the Zimbabwean and Zambian border. This may slow clearing of goods at the border. Information and communication technological problems This is still a challenge at Chirundu. There is a network problem that is experienced between the Zimbabwean and Zambian side. This therefore means that some ZIMRA officers which rely on network are still operating on the Zimbabwean side instead of being on the Zambian side. This is still making it very difficult for smooth operation of the OSBP. ZIMRA is not yet electronically connected to the Zambia side. The option being mulled is to use a fibre optic cable. However, a delay in implementing such a measure exacerbates the situation. . Telephone connectivity to both border posts is not good and furthermore, the connectivity between the two border posts is poor. Much of this is being done by cellular phone, though the reception is only available from certain position. No landlines are available to connect Zimbabwean staff housed on the Zambia side. Even electricity connectivity is not always reliable, particularly on the Zimbabwean side. More the Zambian side has a scanner to scan the trucks loaded with goods. Zimbabwean side does not have the scanner. These are some of the technological challenges which can slow done activities art the border post. It slows clearance of goods. Closing and opening of bor d er times The border opens at 6am and closes at 6pm. This opening and closing time might be too short to clear the trucks and people that will try to cross the border. This is because the trucks passing through Chirundu has increased since the opening of the OSBP. By this fact it means more time is also needed to complement this increased traffic flow. Also as the Zimbabwean economy is showing sign of recovery more traffic is expected to increase as Zimbabwe resumes increased exports and imports of goods and services. Before the decline of the Zimbabwe economy trucks passing through Chirundu used to be over 400 trucks per day and have been reduced to around 250 per day (Curtis, 2009). So as the economy picks we expect the traffic to increase and even surpass those levels as the Chirundu OSBP becomes attractive to use. It therefore means that the two governments should therefore be prepared to open t he border more hours as is at Beitbridge. Parking facilities There are limited facilities for trucks to park on the Zambian side. Trucks are still making long queues waiting on the Zimbabwean side because of the small customs yard from the Z ambian side. This makes long queues still to be noticed on the Zimbabwean side Human skills 47


The challenge that faces many African countries is the need to develop requisite capacities needed to implement modern techniques of doing trade. Developing the necessary infrastructure and human skills are two of the most important challenges Africa faces. Progress in these two areas is fundamental for African countries in general to have the capacity to effectively participate in any trade facilitation programmes that may emerge. Chirundu OSBP is not an exception to these challenges. Staff/ Officers are mainly concerned with getting through the day with as little difficulty as possible, and not be concerned with how the other sections of the border are working and whether the traveler or the trucks are getting through the border quickly and efficiently. They are concerned mainly with their own jobs and authorities, making sure their controls are in place. As a result, procedures at a border post are often not conducive to the most efficient way of transiting the border. This often brings attrition and suspicion between authorities and travelers, which slows trading process. Only one bor d er released of pressure Chirundu is the only border so far in Southern Africa which has an operational OSBP. This has certainly brings relief to travelers and truck drivers as they are no longer waiting so many hours. However other borders are still facing challenges of un-harmonised customs procedures and hence delays. This means that no matter how faster trucks are cleared at Chirundu, they can get jammed in another border for example Beitbridge which is the busiest border post on the North South corridor. These will, however be minimum since this will apply to trucks that are bound to other countries from Zambia or Zimbabwe.

Infrastructure challenges Africa is still facing infrastructure bottlenecks. Some of roads networks are not tarred and those tarred need rehabilitation. This slows the movement of goods and people who will be trading. 3.2

LEBOMBO AND RESSANO-GARCIA BORDER POST

INTRODUCTION The Governments of South Africa and Mozambique indicated their intention to implement a combined one stop border post (OSBP) between the two countries at Lebombo and RessanoGarcia with the objective to expedite passenger and goods traffic between the two countries; To that effect an agreement was signed between the Governments of Mozambique and South Africa on a Combined Border Control Post on the Mozambique-South African Border on 17 September 2007. 3.2.1 y y y y y y

THE PLANNING CONCEPT Segmentation of passenger and goods traffic; Joint processing by S.A. and MOZ (Joint controls); Self-assessment - Green or red lanes; Information sharing (Integrated systems); Intervention by exception  Intelligence based intervention; Downstream safety net  Green lane traffic can still be checked

48


3.2.2

THE OUTCOME

A One Stop Border Post (OSBP) comprising: Commercial traffic processed at the proposed KM 4 freight facility on Mozambican territory; Non-commercial traffic processed at the current border post location, with a new joint infrastructure spanning the border line; Rail passenger traffic processed at the proposed rail facility on South African territory. y

y

y

3.2.3 y y y

y

PROGRESS / STATUS Bilateral Agreement signed between S.A. and MOZ - Sep 2007; LRG OSBP Bilateral Design Workshop in Maputo  Feb 2008; LRG OSBP Operating concept, model and Infrastructure design presented and in principle agreement obtained. 7 LRG OSBP Workgroups identified: Infrastructure, ICT, HR and Training, Legal, Finance and Management, Safety and Security and SOPs  Mar 2008;

49


y y y

y

y

3.2.4

S.A and MOZ departments finalise representation on work groups  Jun 2 008; Legal, SOPs and ICT work groups constituted and commence working  Jun 2008; All S.A. departments agree and sign off staff numbers, accommodation needs and infrastructure designs  Aug 2008; All MOZ departments agree and sign off staff numbers, accommodation needs and infrastructure designs  Sep 2008; Management and Finance and Safety and Security work groups constituted and commence working  Nov 2008

PROJECT CHALLENGES

MACRO ECONOMICS: Global financial crisis impacted on finances across all major sectors. National Treasury (N.T.) cut back on Government allocations. y y

PROJECT FINANCE: Insufficient funds to implement the original OSBP scope. y

LEGAL ISSUES: Key legal implications affecting operations and construction of the OSBP required more attention. y

LAND: y

No formal agreements over land ownership / utilization rights with MOZ.

RESOURCES TO SUPPORT THE OSBP: Physical resources to support operations (i.e. equipment; ICT; furniture, fittings, etc.) y

As a result the 2010 deadline for the OSBP was not achievable. 3.2.5

PROPOSED PHASED APPROACH PHASE 1: Upgrading of Lebombo border post (S.A.) for 2010 y y

Separation of traffic (light vehicles; freight; buses and pedestrians) Design allows later incorporation into the OSBP;

PHASE 2: Upgrading the Ressano-Garcia border post (MOZ) for 2010 Design allows incorporation with Phase 1 (RSA) Design allows later incorporation into the OSBP; y y

PHASE 3: Finalisation of Designs and Construction for OSBP Includes freight facility and main border post. Rail facility for later development. y y

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51


The Proposed One-stop Border Post

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