Th e Encyclopedia
oj
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
The Encyclopedia of
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Dieter Arnold The
ancient Egyptians' massive stone monuments,
ranging
from Abu
Simbel
in
south
the
to
Cleopatra's palaces in Alexandria, were built over a
period of three millennia, and yet architectural tradition links
them
The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian
documents
that tradition
common
a
all.
Architecture
and provides
a
single-
volume reference on one of the most remarkable architectures
of the ancient world. Separate entries
are provided for each
covering
of the most important
monuments such
Djoser (the world's
first
sites,
the Step Pyramid of
as
significant stone building),
the tombs of the Valley of the Kings, Hatshepsut's
mortuary temple
at
Deir el-Bahari, and the great
Ptolemaic temples that line the Upper Nile. Every aspect of building design and construction
is
also
considered in separate entries, covering technical aspects such as building materials (from reed
mud-brick
to
and
sandstone and granite) and con-
struction techniques (including pyramid building
and the erection of obci*
With more than 600 this
entries
encyclopedia provides
spective
and 300
a
on ancient Egyptian
destined to subject for
illustrations,
comprehensive perarchitecture
become the standard many years to come.
reference
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The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture
L
\
Examples of columns, from top
left
to
bottom
^
right: fluted (fasculated); tent-
pole-shaped; palmiform; lotiform bundle, closed capital with four stems; lotiform bundle,
open
capital (not preserved); lotiform bundle, closed capital
with eight stems; papyriform with closed capital and eight stems; papyriform
bundle with closed capital and turned
shaped open capital and turned
shaft;
papyriform bundle with
shaft; liliform (not preserved).
bell-
The Encyclopedia of
Ancient Egyptian Architecture Dieter Arnold
Translated by Sabine H. Gardiner and Helen Strudwick
Edited by Nigel and Helen Strudwick
mm Princeton University Press
Copyright
© English language edition I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd, 2003 London W2 4BU
6 Salem Road, 1
New York NY
75 Fifth Avenue,
10010
www.ibtauris.com
Published in North America by Princeton University Press 41 William Street, Princeton,
New
Jersey
08540
www.pupress.princeton.edu
First
published in
Artemis
The
German
translation of this
All rights reserved.
thereof,
in
1994 as Lexicon der agyptischen Baukunstby
& Winkler Verlag. Copyright © Artemis & Winkler Verlag,
may
book has been supported by
Inter Nationes,
1994, 1997
Bonn.
Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part
not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 0-691-11488-9
A
full
CIP record
for this
book
is
available
from the
British Library
Library of Congress Control Number: 2002112371
Designed and typeset Printed and
bound
in
in
Minion Condensed by Dexter Haven Associates, London
Great Britain by the Bath Press, CPI Group
UK
Contents
Editors'
Note
Entries,
A-Z
vn
Maps
262
Glossary
264
Chronological Table
265
Select Bibliography
271
Note
Editors'
Dieter Arnold
is
responsible for almost
all
of the most up-
is
also essential that a
book
for the general reader in
to-date writing on ancient Egyptian building techniques.
English should include a selection of references for
His Building in Egypt was written in English, but until
further reading which reflect what
now
that
his other important contribution for the general
reader, the Lexikon der agyptischen Baukunst, has
available only in
been
and added a number of new
provided
The
many new
style of this
original,
entries.
He has
also
diagrams, plans and photographs.
book has been changed
which was composed
abbreviated form than
in a
we considered
a
little
from the
more compact and appropriate for the
general English reader, and the translation reflects this.
Nigel
and Helen Strudwick
Hence,
the
is
easily accessible to
references
supplemented with popular but
reliable
have
works
been
in English
wherever possible.
German.
For this translation, Dr Arnold has revised his original text,
reader.
It
The
initial
translation
was undertaken by Sabine
Gardiner, and then edited by ourselves. grateful to I.B.Tauris for taking
an English edition of
McDonnell and
all
this
book.
of his
are
most
We
thank Jonathan
we undertake the work, staff for seeing the book through
for suggesting that
members
We
on the task of producing
the long stages of the road to publication.
A Abacus A square
cover-plate connecting the capital with the
architrave, which in Egyptian architecture
polygonal
columns and
was frequently inscribed with
visible side
found on
is
pillars with floral capitals.
The
a horizontal
cartouche. In late temples dedicated to female deities
worked
into a
Hathor-
capital or decorated with a Bes figure.
Rounded
(Philae), the abacus
headed
is
often
abaci are found only at Tanis on
palm columns re-used
from the Old Kingdom. Bibliography: Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire, Plate 47.
Plan of the rock temple of
Horemheb
Abgig (Begig) A cult courtyard containing I,
lying 3
12.9
m
km
at
Abahuda
a granite stela of Senwosret
south-west of Medinet el-Faiyum.
high, tapering, rectangular stela, with a
It
was a
rounded
top crowned with a figure (of a falcon?). Remains of
decoration indicate that
it
was dedicated
to
Month-
Re/ Amun-Re and Ptah/Re-Horakhty, and to other gods. is
It
the only surviving remains of the pillared cult place of
a kind
probably widely distributed in Egypt.
It
now
stands in a square in Medinet el-Faiyum. Bibliography: Description IV, Plate 71;
ID
II,
Plate 119;
M. Chaaban,
Rapport sur une mission a l'obelisque d'Abguig (Fayoum),
26(1926)105-108.
Papyrus column of Amenhotep
III
with abacus and architrave
Abahuda (Abu Hoda) A
rock-cut temple built by Horemheb,
slightly
at
Gebel Adda
south of Abu Simbel and on the opposite bank of
the Nile.
It is
dedicated to
and has an entrance raised sanctuary
hall
Amun-Re, Thoth and local gods with four papyrus columns, a
and two side-chambers.
Bibliography: JaroslavCernyand Elmar Silvio Curto,
EdelAbou-Oda
(Cairo 1963);
Nubien (Munich 1966) 333-340; W. Helck, Abu 'Oda,
Helck,LAI23-24.
in:
Reconstruction of the pillar-like stela at Abgig (Begig)
in:
ASAE
Abu Ghalib Abu Ghalib
the rock
The remains of
a fairly small
town on
edge of the Delta which originated Several
houses were excavated
in
the south-west
in the 12th Dynasty.
1934-37.
Abu
Ghalib,
in:
MDA1K 6
supported on
were cut out of the rock and
Grabungen
(1935) 4 1-87 and 10(1941) 1-59.
1819);
see
rebuilt
Niuserre, Abusir
the Old
Kingdom, 9
field
pyramid of Djedefre standing on large brick-built
on a higher site behind.
It
encompasses the
a rocky plateau
and a
structure in the cultivation nearby
(perhaps a pyramid of the 3rd Dynasty).
and Georg
Abu
Simbel,
Gerster, Le
monde
1968); The Salvage of
(Stockholm 1976);
in:
Abu Simbel (London
and Ch. Kuentz, Le
1965);
petit temple
S.
sauve
Abou Simbel (Vienna- Berlin
Abu Simbel
Temples. Concluding Report
Donadoni, H. El-Achiri and Ch. Leblanc, Grand
25-27; lean Jacquet, Quelques remarques sur
d'Abou-Simbel,
in:
le
in:
Helck,
LA
1
at
Ramessidische Bautatigkeit 31-36; F.-X. Hery and
Abu Simbel demonstrate that they were the climax Ramesses Us programme of temple construction
of
Simbel
et les temples
in:
Helck,
LA
grand temple
Cahiers d'histoire egyptienne 10 (Cairo 1966)
194-209; E. Otto, Abusimbel,
and quality of execution of the two temples
scale
London
Sational Geographic Magazine 129
temple d'Abou Simbel (Cairo 1975); E. Otto, Abu Simbel, 1
Abu Simbel The
(
Subien (Tubingen 1981)
d'Abou Simbel, 2 Vols (Cairo, 1968); Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt
of the Thinite Period and
km north of Giza.
in
(1966) 694-742; William MacQuitty,
also Djedefre
An important mastaba
The
pillars.
1071-1014; Gau, Antiquites, Plates 54-61; Georg Gerster, Saving the
Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt
Abu Roash, see
Hathor-headed
most recently Reisen
ancient temples at
Abu Ghurob, see
six
are unfinished. In 1964-68, both temples
Bibliography: Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, Travels in Subia
Bibliography: H. Larsen. Yorbericht uber die schwedischen in
is
rooms beyond
26-27; T.
Hein,
Enel,
Abou
de Nubie (ALx-en-Provence 1994).
in
Nubia, completed in the 34th year of his reign. The larger
temple
dedicated to the state gods
is
south) and Horus of
Mehu
Amun-Re
(in the
and
also to
(in the north),
Ptah and, in particular, to the deified Ramesses. The seated figures, 22
m high, cut out of a deep recess in the
Ja&
rock facade, correspond to the colossal statues of this
king
the
at
Delta,
Ramesseum and
Per-Ramesses. These statues were conceived of as beings and had their
'living'
own names. The
is
a noticeable emphasis
frieze of solar
separate
sloping
pylon or temple facade.
front of the rock represents a
There
the
at his capital city in
on the solar
cult in the
apes on the upper edge of the facade, in the
sun temple north of the main temple, and
in
the complete illumination of the cult images twice a year at sunrise
on 20 February and 20 October. The figure of
the sun god, stepping out of the temple facade,
is
a
representation of the king as the incarnation of the sun.
The
attributes of the figure, the
sun disc (= Re), the user-
sign (carried in his right hand) his left
name
hand) are
of Ramesses
II.
deep and contains modation, from the
and
store
and the Ma'at
figure (in
be read as User-ma'at-Re, the throne
to
The all
interior of the
temple
is
60
m
the necessary inner accom-
hall of
appearances to side-chambers
rooms. The painted
relief
decoration
hall,
which has two rows of statue
The smaller temple Abshek and Here
to
Queen
is
dedicated both to Hathor of
king and queen emerge
from the sloping rock facade, which front of a pylon.
The
Plan of the large and small temples of Ramesses
II at
Abu Simbel
pillars.
Nefertari as the deified Isis-Hathor.
too, colossal figures of the
J]
is
completely preserved, most impressively in the hypostyle
ceiling of the hall
is
conceived as the
immediately inside
Abusir Royal necropolis of the 5th Dynasty, between Giza and
Saqqara, with examples of pyramid temples. The
pyramid complexes of Sahure, Neferirkare, Niuserre, Neferefre and one other
still
unidentified ruler of the 5th
Abydos Dynasty are here, together with their royal households.
relatively
few tombs of
Most prominent among them
are
1.
pyramid complex of Queen Khentkawes and the mastaba of Ptahshepses. The sun temples of Userkaf and Niuserre, slightly to the north (at Abu Ghurob)
at
count as part of Abusir. To the south-west, in the desert,
as
the
is
a necropolis of large shaft
tombs of the 30th Dynasty,
J.
de Morgan, Carte de
necropole memphite (Cairo
la
of the kings and funerary enclosures 1st
and 2nd Dynasties
is
Umm el-Ga'ab, in the desert to the west of the temple
of Sety
I.
Various researchers have questioned whether
the royal tombs at Abydos are
'real',
seeing
them merely
cenotaphs of the kings who were actually buried
at
Saqqara.
The development of the tombs
including that of Wedjahorresnet. Bibliography:
Tombs
The cemetery of the kings of the
a different pace to those at
at
Abydos proceeded
at
Saqqara, their use starting
1897); Miroslav Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids, Abusir
and
(Prague 1994); Edwards, Pyramids, 174-184; Lehner, Complete
research by the
at
Cairo
Pyramids, 142-153; M. Verner, The tomb of Iufaa
has revealed the oldest burials, dating to Dynasty
and
Egyptian Archaeology 14 (1999) 39-40;
development of the royal necropolis
Kingdom,
in:
Barta, Abusir
J.
at
Krejci,
at Abusir, in:
The origins and
Abusir during the Old
finishing earlier than at the latter
German
the period of the unification, those of Iry-Hor, Ka,
Narmer and Hor Aha. From can be ascribed
One
Current
the reign of King Djer
onwards, funerary enclosures, lying to the north-east,
2000 467-484.
sunk
Abydos the
site.
Archaeological Institute
of the principal sites of Egypt, containing
many
of
most important tombs, temples and town remains of
2.5
m
with bricks
Within the
to
down
each tomb. The tombs consist of into the floor of the desert
or, later,
pits
pits
and lined
limestone blocks, being open above.
were the actual burial chambers, which
New Kingdom. At
were protected by buttress-like spurs and constructed of
12 royal cult complexes are attested to either
archaeologically or from other sources, dating from the
beams and mats. These spurs in the tomb of Djet are niched. The ceiling of beams was overlaid with a
12th to the 26th Dynasty ('houses of millions of years',
covering of sand, which protruded slightly or not at
the period from the 1st Dynasty to the least
places where the king
was re-united with
Bibliography (general): Eberhard Otto, Osiris 1966); B.
Kemp, Abydos,
in:
Helck.IA
I
above the
Osiris).
und Amun (Munich
28-41.
level of the desert.
layout of the
chambers
reflects the
arrangement of the
royal palace, confirming the function of the
tombs
Hierakonpolis 100
Irj-hor
Development of the Pre-dynastic and Early Dynastic royal tombs
in the necropolis of
all
According to Dreyer, the
Umm el-Qaab at Abydos (after Vf. Kaiser and G. Dreyer)
as
Abydos palaces of eternity.
over this
Whether there was
debated, but
is
it is
stelae (such as those of
Aha and
Djer, Djet
In the
filling.
Aha
Wadj, and possibly also in the tombs of
Dewen,
it
and
Egypte,
jARCE 26
possible that a small tumulus, hidden within
is
was constructed over the
pit,
pit itself
Dynasty onwards, the
were sunk
pits
D. O'Connor,
R.
(1989) 51-86; G. Dreyer,
MDAIK
in:
Mainz, Sandtumulus oder Ziegelplatte?,
in:
New Funerary
in:
1st
The Nile Delta
in Transition: 4th.-3rd.
in:
47 (1991) 93-104;
Discussions in Egyptology
26 (1993) 25-46; G. Dreyer, Recent Discoveries
and
contained within a brick wall. From the middle of the
(1969) 1-21;
Enclosures (Talbezirke) of the Early Dynastic Period at Abydos,
tomb of
(B 15) and
BIFAO 79 (1979) 355-394;
in:
MDA1K 25
in:
Le developpement des complexes funeraires royaux en
J.-Ph. Lauer,
quite possible that the royal
Meryneith) stood on the sand
the burial
zur Baugeschichte des Djoser-Grabmals,
a superstructure
at
Abydos Cemetery U,
Millennium B.C.
(Tel Aviv
1992) 293-299; Excavation Reports of the DAI by W. Kaiser and
to a greater depth,
MDAIK
35 (1979) 155-163; 38 (1982) 211-269; 46
being accessible by a stairway. The tombs were
G. Dreyer in
surrounded by a row of subsidiary burials, which are
(1990) 53-90; 47 (1991) 93-104; 49 (1993) 23-62; 54 (1998) 77-175;
thought to be an Upper Egyptian feature. Their low,
56 (2000) 43-129; Giinter Dreyer,
mastaba-like superstructures have roof,
a
on which there may have been
name
of the
slightly
Umm el-Qaab I (Mainz
1998).
vaulted
a stela bearing the
tomb owner. This development ceased
2.
Cenotaphs
tomb
Several kings constructed an Osiris
at
Abydos,
either following the tradition of earlier royal tombs, or in
around the middle of the 2nd Dynasty.
order to participate in the resurrection of Osiris by Royal tombs and funerary enclosures of the Early Dynastic Period
at
Abydos
(figures in brackets represent tb.p
number
of
means of
King Senwosret
a)
secondary burials; the numbering follows Petrie)
complex Tombs
Two examples have been found
a false burial.
to date:
in the desert,
III
monumental
erected a
cult
with a brick enclosure below the
Funerary
desert escarpment, surrounding a gigantic subterranean
enclosures
rock tomb.
Its
structure
funerary complexes. The level,
Dynasty
is
in the
first
form of four successive
tomb
finishes at the lowest
with one central and two side-chambers. Above
it
is
a second tomb, with a system of shafts similar to the
Scorpion
Ka
B 7-9, 1-2
-
shafts near the entrance of the kings' tombs in the Valley
Narmer
B 17-18
-
of the Kings. This
is
followed by the
tomb, which
'true'
contained the granite sarcophagus and canopic chest, 1st
and from there
Dynasty
Djer
(326)
Djet
Z (174)
Meryneith
a
winding passage led
to the actual Osiris
tomb, which was never finished. The most important
-
B 10-15-19
Hor Aha
A
corridors
(269)
and chambers are faced with limestone and
quartzite. At the edge of the desert
Y(41)
B(154) -
Den
T (121)
C(?)(80)
was part of
Adjib
X(63)
D(?)
earliest
Semerkhet
U(69)
D(?)
New Kingdom,
Qa'a
Q(26)
Deir
temple, surrounded by
a royal statue
for priests,
complex. This temple
examples of a type which became
hypostyle
Sitt
this
is
accommodation
is
which
one of the
common in the
consisting of a colonnaded courtyard,
hall, offering
chamber and
sanctuary
triple
(multiple shrine).
Damiana
b)
The cenotaph of Ahmose
pyramid-like
2nd Dynasty
cult structure
is
in the
on the edge of the
form of
Peribsen
P
'Middle Fort'
with a memorial chapel to Queen Tetisheri, some
Khasekhemwy
V
Shunet
houses and an Osiris tomb in the desert.
el-
winding passage leads past a
Zebib
a
cultivation,
An
priests'
S-shaped
pillared hall, containing
three rows of six pillars, to the actual burial chamber, Bibliography: E. Amelineau, Les nouvelles fouilles d'Abydos, 3 Vols (Paris 1899-04); W.M.F. Petrie,
2 Vols
(London 1900-01);
the First Dynasty, 1st
in:
B.J.
The Royal Tombs of the
Kemp, Abydos and
JEA 52 (1966) 13-22;
Dynasty royal cemetery,
in:
B.J.
First
the Royal
Dynasty,
Tombs
of
Kemp, The Egyptian
Antiquity 41 (1967) 22-32; W. Kaiser,
Zu den koniglichen Talbezirken der
1.
und
2.
Dynastie in Abydos und
which remains
in
an unfinished
state.
To the north of the temple of Ramesses
II,
there
is
an
extensive necropolis of the 12th Dynasty, containing private cenotaphs.
The structures
consist of an enclosure
around a vaulted chapel, made of bricks and painted white,
and
in
some
cases surrounded by a small garden.
Amur
Ain
continuation of the
Isometric projection of the inner chambers of the Osiris
Bibliography: E.R. Ayrton et
Abydos
al.,
III
tomb of Senwosret
1904 (London 1904);
William K. Simpson, The Terrace of the Great God at Abydos: The Offering Chapels of Dynasties 12 1974); D. O'Connor, in:
and
13
(New Haven and
The 'Cenotaphs' of the Middle Kingdom
Abydos,
at
Melanges GamalEddin Mokhtar (Cairo 1985) 161-177; J.Wegner,
South Abydos: Burial Place of the Third Senwosret?, 59-71;
J.
Wegner, Excavations
the
at
Town
Places-Khakaure-Maa-Kheru-in-Abydos, S.
Philadelphia
Harvey, Monuments of Ahmose
at
in:
in:
Kemet 6 1995) (
of Enduring-are-the-
JARCE 35
(1998) 1-44;
Abydos, in: Egyptian Archaeology
4(1994)3-5.
III at
tomb
Abydos
outside the temple. The image of the deity displayed on the outside wall
overlay, and like
annexe or
frequently
is
made prominent by a metal
sometimes also protected by a kiosk-
is
a small temple.
attached to most of the
Rear chapels are found
main temples
Mut, Khonsu, Month),
at
Karnak (Amun,
at
Deir el-Medina, Deir
Shelwit, the temple of Shanhur, the
Isis
Dendera
Dakka
(with a cult niche), Kalabsha,
cult niche)
el-
temple of (with a
and Tanis.
Against the rear of the
Amun
temple
at
Karnak
is
a
Re-Horakhty temple, and against the Mut temple a
Abydos
3.
Temple of Sety
4.
Temple of Ramesses
I at
II at
sanctuary of Maat. The temple of Ptah
Abydos
the Re-Horakhty temple at Heliopolis
Memphis and
at
had two
cult axes
facing each other. 5.
Town
Bibliography: Ludwig Borchardt, Allerhand Kleinigkeiten (Leipzig
Within the enclosure of Kom el-Sultan are the remains of a
town, which dates from Naqada
III
onwards, as well as
the scant remains of a temple to Osiris-Khentyimentyu. Bibliography: William Flinders Petrie, Abydos 1 1902
and in:
II
1903 (London 1903);
MDAIK 23
Towns
Kemp, The
B.J.
(1968) 138-155;
B.J.
Temple
F.
Laroche and in:
C.
Traunecker, La chapelle adossee au
Karnak 6 (1980) 167-196; W. Guglielmi, Die
Funktion von Tempeleingang und Gegentempel
als
Gebetsort,
in:
Kurth, Tempeltagung 55-68.
Abydos,
at
Kemp, The Early Development of
in Egypt, in: Antiquity 51 (1977)
munity and Social Organization
Osiris
(London 1902)
1933) 8-9;
temple de Khonsou,
185-200; M.D. Adams,
in Early Historic Egypt, in:
Com-
NARCE
158/159(1992) 1-9.
Ain
Amur
The ruins of a Roman temple between the oases of
Dakhla and El-Kharga. and
consists of
It is
surrounded by
a
brick wall
two badly damaged antechambers, a
stone transverse hall and three naoi.
Addorsed chapel, addorsed temple (chapelle
Bibliography: H.E. Winlock,
adossee)
A. Fakhry,
This
is
a cult structure built
and attached
to the rear wall,
on the outside of
a
temple
which enabled the deity
in
the sanctuary inside to be addressed by people standing
in:
ASA£ 40
Ed Dakhleh
(1941) 761-768.
Oasis
(New York
1936);
Ain Asil Ain Asil, see also Balat A fortified town covering an
form of area of 330,000 sq m.
Bibliography: Excavation Reports by L. Giddy
BIFAO 79 (1979)
in:
31-33; 80 (1980) 257-262; 81 (1981) 189-205:83 (1983); 84 (1984);
87 (1987); G. Soukiassian, Soukiassian,
A
in:
BIFAO 90 (1990) 347-358; Georges
Governor's palace
Egyptian Archaeology
11
at 'Ayn
Dakhla Oasis,
Asil,
in:
tent posts,
with
aisles
known
Roman
the Dakhla Oasis, of a well-preserved
(similar to Horus)
dedicated to
is
and Hathor. Excavations
and restoration have been underway since 1995.
linked to the central sanctuary by a
in:
its
wall is
'window of appear-
this
is
an altar court, with two rows of
d'Amon-Re a Karnak (Cairo
Bibliography: Paul Barguet, Le temple
1962) 157-217;
Thoutmosis
J.
III
Lauffray, Le secteur nord-est
a Karnak,
Kemi
in:
du temple jubilaire de
19 (1969) 179-218; Nathalie
Beaux, Le cabinet de curiosites de Thoutmosis
Bibliography: A.]. Mills, The Dakhleh Oasis Project: Report on the
1990-1991 Field Season,
to
decoration which shows exotic animals and plants,
four small statue niches and a larger central one.
temple, possibly of Augustus, which
Amunnakht
due
as the 'botanical garden',
columns. Behind
site, in
sides by lower side-
within a pillared courtyard. Another
like a festival tent hall,
all
basilica-like central space stands
ances' and has particularly beautiful papyrus bundle
(1997) 15-17.
Ain Birbiya (Dakhla Oasis) The
surrounded on
The
pillars.
JSSEA 20(1990) 14-16.
Orientalia
III,
Lovaniensia Analecta 36 (Louvain 1990) 7-37; Nathalie Beaux, L'architecture des niches
l'Akh-menou a Karnak,
du sanctuaire d'Amon dans
in:
temple de
le
Karnak 9 1993) 101-107. (
Ain el-Muftella, see also Bahariya Oasis A major site of the Late and Roman Periods near El-Qasr the Bahariya Oasis with substantial remains of a
in
temple built
in
the reign of Amasis (26th Dynasty) by the
governors Djed-Khonsu-ef-ankh and Sheben-Khonsu. Excavations by Zahi Hawass in 1977 showed that the four
Ahmed Fakhry
separate cult chapels, recorded by
1942, are actually part of one larger building.
in
The temple
contained an early example of a pronaos. The temple
2
nOOOOO OOOOOa
3
d
walls are decorated with interesting processions of gods. Bibliography:
Ahmed
Fakhry, Bahria Oasis
(Cairo 1942) 150-171;
I
Mummies (New
Zahi Hawass, Valley of the Golden
York 2000)
p p p p p p p p p p
a
a
a
Jaaaanaa
Akhmenu A
Amun precinct at Karnak.
was probably that
it
lies
d
a
a
built against
It
III at
the eastern
end of
Thutmosis
III at
Karnak
(after G.
a
Akhmenu temple
lost,
so
and could only
Akhmim An
(Panopolis,
Chemmis)
important ancient city in Middle Egypt, with the
remains of temples and necropoleis
Senwosret
Salamuni). The temple of Min and Triphis was
Thutmosis
III)'
names, 'Exalted
is
the Memorial (of
and 'house of millions of years', indicate
that the building
was dedicated above
all
to the cult of the
king as a manifestation of Amun-Re. The together with the temple of
Thutmosis
Bahari and his temple next to the
formed
Akhmenu,
III at
Deir
Ramesseum, may have own way, served the
The principal sanctuaries of
Amun and the deified king are located east wall.
The Akhmenu has
in the centre of the
culfic buildings similar to
those of the 'houses of millions of years' on the West at
Thebes, with a solar
cult area
on the
roof, a
sanctuary and a chapel for the royal ancestors. The hall
is
el-
a cultic unit. All three, in their
cult of the deified king.
of
Haeny)
be entered from the south-east corner of the temple of Its
|
has an unusual plan and
an older building now
across the axis of the old temple
I.
[
^czrt:
Plan and section of the hypostyle hall of the
structure erected by Thutmosis
the
a
:ne
192-195.
T
of particular architectural interest;
raised central space with two rows of ten
it
Bank Sokar
festival
consists of a
columns
in the
good size,
state of repair in the
(at
still
in a
Middle Ages. Because of
stonework and beautiful decoration,
as equivalent to
Hawawish and
it
its
was regarded
one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Descriptions indicate that the building must have
resembled the temple of Edfu, with pylons, pronaos and temple building. The pronaos was 86 deep, and
it
had 40 columns, 21
probably arranged the
size
in four
m
rows of
m
wide and 30
in height,
ten,
making
of the great hypostyle hall
m
which were
at
it
close to
Karnak.
Herodotus mentions two colossal statues. The temple
was demolished
1350
in
material.
A monumental
statues of
Ramesses
II
and
AD
and used
as building
gate structure, with colossal his
daughter Merytamun, has
been undergoing excavation since 1981.
Alexander the Great, tomb of Bibliography: Herodotus, History
d'Akhmim Achmim,
LA
in:
I
91; S. Sauneron, Le temple
Raumes von Akhmim, Instituts Kairo
des Deutschen Archaologischen
Kanawati,
II
B/FAO 51 (1952) 123-135;
Karig,
J.
54-55; Klaus-Peter Kuhlmann, Materialien zur
Archdologie und Geschichte des 11
Book
decrit par Ibn Jobair, in:
Akhmim
Old Kingdom, The Australian Centre for
in the
Egyptology Studies 2
(
Sonderschrift
(Mainz 1983); N.
Alabaster
(calcite)
Asyut
Hatnub near Amarna). Due
(particularly at
colour and consistency,
it
was regarded
I
temples
in
(e.g.
Amun
at
in:
Karnak, was
and turning point
it
was loaded on board
barque of
for the
its
return to the temple. The building had a timber roof, and consisted of an antechamber, surrounded by six columns,
and
a rear portion
columns attached
surrounded by
a wall.
The two
antae of the rear
to the
half-
hall, in
form of plant-bundle columns, are of particular
the
interest,
Bibliography: Jean Lauffray, La chapelle d'Achoris a Karnak.
1
- Les
colonnade on three
or offering
Amun
and
km
south of
forecourt surrounded by a
sides,
chamber with three
the deified king,
330
Re.
and
a
hypostyle hall
parallel sanctuaries for It is
now
in the
museum
of Khartoum. Bibliography:
).
Yercoutter and A. Rosenwasser, Preliminary Report of in:
131-134; 12 (1964) 96-99;
Kush 10 (1962) 109-114;
E. Otto,
Akscha,
in:
LA
I
11
A. Harrel, Misuse of the term 'alabaster' in
199-223.
Macedonia, Ptolemy
(1963)
118; Hein,
Babylon, to Aigai in
in
Soter had the funeral car (which
I
a two-year period) inter-
cepted in Syria. Alexander's body was buried
Philadelphos) being
moved
to
Alexandria, where
new communal tomb and the Ptolemaic
(the
Soma
or
Sema)
royal family, with
it
a superstructure in the
a magnificent for
Alexander
underground
vaults
form of a pyramid. Ptolemy X
substituted an alabaster sarcophagus for the golden one.
mummy
Augustus and other destruction in 273
Alexander
is
AD
known
was
Roman to
visited
by Julius Caesar,
emperors. After the tomb's
(Aurelian), an important cult of
have continued in existence until
323 AD. According to Strabo, the Sema lay
Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 38-40.
at
golden sarcophagus in a funerary
laid to rest in a
monument. Ptolemy IV Philopator erected
and
first
before later (possibly in the reign of Ptolemy
Alexander's
the Excavations at Aksha,
J.
119 (1990) 37-42; De Putter, Pierres 43-46;
which had been embalmed
was II,
GM
Alexander the Great, tomb of On his deathbed, Alexander the Great expressed the wish that he be buried in the Ammoneion at Siwa (Diodoros XVIII, 3, 5). When Perdikkas attempted to move the body,
II
Aksha (Serra West) Aswan, consisting of a pylon,
129-130;
I
in:
Kkmm, Steine
Memphis,
fouilles, I'architecture, le mobilier et I'anastylose (Paris 1995).
The remains of a temple of Ramesses
LA
had been constructed over
although their capitals are unfortunately missing.
pillared
I),
for sculptures.
Amun
and also on
a boat,
Helck,
Egyptology,
completed by Akoris. This unusual building served as a
before
all,
Bibliography: Nicholson, Materials 2 1-22, 59-60; W.Helck, Alabaster,
begun by Psammuthis, on the bank of
the Nile in front of the temple of
resting place
Khafre and Unas),
sarcophagi (such as those of Hetepheres and Sety
Akoris, chapel of station,
its
and the barque station by the sacred lake
Karnak), paving
altars (e.g. Niuserre) and, above
A barque
to
as particularly
pure and so was used for chapels (such as the chapel of
at
Akhtihotep, see Ptahhotep
at
Wadi Gerawi (near Helwan) and between Minya and
Amenhotep
1992).
was acquired from the quarries
Calcite (travertine)
area close to the sea, and lie in
it is
the area of the Nabi Daniel
Demas, at the west end of the
in the palace
thought that the tomb
mosque
in the
may
Kom
el-
Kom el-Dikka. However, the
excavations of Breccia, Adriani and the Polish mission
have not found any trace of
it.
Other traditions suggest
Mark or the mosque of Attarin, where the sarcophagus of Nectanebo II (now in the British Museum), thought originally to be that of Alexander, was the church of St
used, until approximately 1799, as a bath. Bibliography: E.D. Clarke, The
Tomb of Alexander the
Great (Cambridge
1805); H.Thiersch, Die alexandrinischeK6nigsnekropole,in:/a/!rtuc/!
des Deutschen Arch.
Alexandria
Inst.
(1972) Vol.
I
25 (1911) 55-97; P.M. Fraser, Ptolemaic 15-38. Jean-Yves Empereur, Alexandria
Rediscovered (London 1998) 145-153. Plan of the temple of Ramesses
II
at
Aksha
Alexandria
8
AM
1900 215-279; Ernst
Alexandria
Alexandrien,
Sea port founded by Alexander the Great, in 332-31 BC,
Alexandria, 2 Vols. (Leipzig 1908-1924);
near Rhakotis on the Mediterranean, further developed
Antike, Islam
by Ptolemy
I
and Ptolemy
II. It
was the
capital city of the
Ptolemies and became a cosmopolitan city of the
and Roman
Hellenistic
Era. According to the plan of the
Rhodes and Cleomenes of
architects Deinocrates of
Naukratis,
it
was
built to a regular layout,
km. The most
of approximately 2.2 x 5
city walls
surrounded by
important monuments are the royal palace in the centre, near the sea, the library of Ptolemy 120
m
in the
Museion, the
high lighthouse, built by Sostratos of Knidos for
Ptolemy Bey),
II
I
on the Pharos peninsula (now known
as Qait
and the funerary complex of Soma or Sema with the
tombs of Alexander and the Ptolemies (kings' tombs). Of was the Serapeum of Ptolemy
particular significance at
III
Rhakotis, covering 70 x 160 m, built by the architect
Parmeniskos, which stood city but
now
is
at the
south-west edge of the
unfortunately destroyed. The beautiful
Caesareum of Cleopatra VII and Augustus, a building
at
the eastern harbour, dedicated to the imperial cult,
containing the two 'Cleopatra's needles' (obelisks) has also
been destroyed. A Roman temple
Soda,
better preserved. There are
is
to Isis, at
many
Ras
el-
re-used blocks
from pharaonic buildings, particularly from Heliopolis.
und
(Leipzig-Berlin
Instituts
in
Thiersch, Pharos,
Occident. Ein Beitrag zur Architekturgeschichte
Hermann
1909);
Konigsnekropole,
Ausgrabungen
Sieglin,
Hermann
in:
Thiersch, Die alexandrinische
Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archdologischen
25 (1911) 55-97; Evaristo Breccia, Alexandrea adAegyptum
(Bergamo
1914); Achille Adriani, Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto grecoForster, Alexandria.
A
History
and a Guide (New York 1961 ); Andre Bernand, Alexandrie
la
Grande
romano, 2 Vols (Palermo 1961); E.M.
(Paris 1966); Kazimierz Michalowski, Alexandria
(Vienna-Munich
1970); P.M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 Vols (Oxford
1972);
Kulturbegegnungen
dreier
Norbert
Hinske,
Alexandrien.
Ed.,
Jahrtausende im Schmelztiegel einer mediterranen Grofistadt (Mainz 1981); K. Parlasca, esch-Schugafa (Alexandria), in: Helck,
739-741; Patrizio Pensabene, Lastre egizi e stele funerarie
Alessandria e
it
con
mondo
di chiusura di loculi
ritratto del
(1990), 16 (1992); Birger A. Pearson,
Archaeologist
di Alessandria, in:
ellenistko-romano, Vol. 4
91-119; Reports of the Polish Mission,
Biblical
museo
56
(1993)
in:
ET 11
(Rome 1983)
(1979), 13 (1983), 14
The New Alexandria 221;
LA V
con naiskoi
Barbara
Library, in:
The
Tkaizow,
Topography of Ancient Alexandria (An Archaeological Map) Warsaw (
1993); Giinther
Grimm and
Michael Pfrommer, Alexandria. Die
Konigsstadt der hellenistischen
d 'Alexandrie,
(Mainz
Welt
1998);
La
erste
gloire
exhibition catalogue, Petit Palais (Paris 1998); Jean-
Yves Empereur, Alexandria Rediscovered ( London 1998).
There are important necropoleis, varying in date from Ptolemaic to
Roman
Wardian/Mex
in the
Kom
times, at Anfukhi,
western part of the
el-Shukafa, city,
and
at
Hadra, Khatby, Sidi Gabr, Ibrahimiah and Mustafa Kamil in the eastern part.
The tomb complexes
are
sunk
into the
on from the native Egyptian funerary
rock, following
palaces of the Late Period. They are decorated in a style
which
is
a mixture of Hellenistic
The tombs
storey'
catacombs
2nd century AD, The ancient
at
Kom
are in a
city
Among
the
numerous
different
forms of
altar in ancient
Egypt, the most important in architectural terms are the high, generally accessible altars for offerings in the
open
air.
In
most cases
a
ramp
which stood
leads
up
to a
platform, finished with a cavetto cornice, on top of which
and Egyptian elements.
sun courts, with
consist of peristyle-like
and benches carved out of the
altars
Altar
rock.
The
'multi-
el-Shukafa, dating from the
mixed Egypto- Roman
style.
has largely been built over and has
Roman remains have been (Kom el-Dikka), consisting of
disappeared. Important late
excavated in the city centre a
and
theatre, baths
preserved in a protected
An underwater
living
they have been
areas;
monuments
zone.
excavation, headed by Jean-Yves
Empereur, around Qait Bey has revealed
c.
3000 ancient
sphinxes, obelisks, statues and blocks, perhaps fallen
from the Pharos lighthouse of divers
is
in
1503 AD.
A
second group
currently exploring the remains of the
Ptolemaic palaces in the east harbour. Bibliography (select): for older bibliography on Alexandria see Ida A. Pratt,
Ancient Egypt,
York 1942) 91-92;
1st
PM
Ed.
(New York 1925)
IV 2-6;
F.
1
15-118, 2nd Ed. (New-
Noack, Neue Untersuchungen
in
Reconstruction of the solar altar in the Hatshepsut temple el-Bahari
at
Deir
Amarna stood an altar or a base for an altar protected from view by
an area of approximately 800-1200 x 7000 m, and follows
may be found at Edfu, Kom Ombo, Medamud and the Ramesseum. In solar cult
a linear organisation, with loosely arranged areas of
examples
a screen wall;
(Amarna, sun temples and 'house of millions
contexts
of years'), the
altar faced east so that the cult rituals
Amarna,
directed towards the rising sun. At altars of the
Aten
the
were
main
stand in a hypaetral holy of holies,
cult
or occasionally in the passageway between the towers of a
pylon. Another unusual feature
at
Amarna is the series
vast altars in the desert,
one 40 x 40
ramps leading up on
to
numerous small the temples.
which
The alabaster
of
1.
Sanctuaries (Aten temples)
When
the city
were provided
was founded, temporary Aten in the
form of brick altars
process was not complete by the time of the death of
Akhenaten. The stone structures were completely dis-
fill
sides,
the courtyards of
sun temple of
mantled under Ramesses projects at
II
for re-use
is
and remains of the brick structures
is
Representations of the temples in rock
provided with two obelisks and solar baboons.
in:
Peet, City of
Helck.IA
I
essential for reconstructing
Akhenaten
II
145-149.
the temples functioned still
largely
a)
Amara West (Amarah) The ruins of 145
a fortified
km south of Wadi I
and Ramesses
town on an
island in the Nile,
Haifa, including the remains of the
II.
The
hypostyle
hall, with four
three parallel sanctuaries.
structure of brick which
decorated with of Sai, to
is
reliefs.
1 1
Amara
and
their associated
largest temple,
I.
was
first
built
by
temple
is
road. Inside, only two buildings, central axis, 350
m
site
of
(Tell
stone and
km further south, on
the island
Dynasty with a temple
Bautdtigkeit
51-60;
Patricia
The Architectural Report (London 1997) 27-51.
I
and Ramesses
II
at
Amara West
archaeological importance, founded
in year 5 of the reign of
are
is
the
which stood on the
el-Amarna)
immense
rooms
apart, were completed. That at the
building was a small
later rebuilt in
Plan of the Amun temple built by Sety
Amarna
visible.
measuring 290 x 760 m,
rows of three columns, and
The
Hein, Ramessidische West
still
unknown.
Amun.
Spencer,
A
Amun
partially destroyed
a fortress of the 18th
Bibliography:
are
tombs have been them. The manner in which
important and has a colonnaded court, a
relatively
building
Per-Aten, which lay to the east of the royal processional
palace of the governor and a temple to
Sety
The
in
Hermopolis. Only the foundation trenches
Abu Simbel
unique. The altar in the solar sanctuary at
101-102; R. Stadelmann, Altar,
air.
this
and the
altar in the
Manuel 337-341;
open
These developed gradually into stone temples, but
Niuserre, which faces the four points of the compass,
Bibliography: Jequier,
cult areas
in the
m in area, which have
them on four
solar altars
sacred buildings, administrative districts and residential buildings on both sides of a central street.
Akhenaten, on the East Bank of
the Nile opposite Mallawi.
It
was abandoned under
Tutankhamun and subsequently
fell
into ruin.
It
covers
Plan of the Aten temple Pa-hut- Aten
at
Amarna
Amarna
10
main temple (known
the
rear,
was
as the Sanctuary),
approached by an avenue of
originally a high altar
sphinxes, flanked by a garden of
trees.
This was later
with plants. In front of this 'greenhouse' were flower beds
and small
islands,
three temples.
surrounded by canals, on which were
The whole complex was
a
miniature
developed into a form of terraced temple. The front was
representation of the cosmos for the celebration of the
formed of an open terrace on which were eight rows of
birth of the Aten, with representations of the
twelve altars. Behind this, on a higher terrace, was an
of water that the sun god had to cross during his nightly
altar court,
surrounded by chapels, with a gateway of
journey,
1 1
stretches
and with the 12th round basin forming the point
unusual construction. The Sanctuary contained a large
of climax where the island sanctuary emerged out of the
number
water
and statue groups of the king and
of statues
queen, and
it
was the principal
complex, perhaps
to
temple
be identified with the 'shadow of Re'
tomb of Huy
depicted in the
cult focus of the
Amarna).
(at
measuring 32 x 210 m, divided of pylons. Behind the
by
into sections
pylon was a
d)
later
with the Gem-pa-Aten temple, a structure
primeval mound. Another interpretation
consisting of 11 months, with the 12th festival at the
The avenue of sphinxes and the garden were built over
like the
sees this as a representation of the seasonal cycle
A
time of the
Kom Nana to
the south.
six pairs
festival hall, the
2.
Palaces
a)
The 'official' palace on the edge of the
central passage
was not roofed. The sections following
consisted of open courtyards containing small altars.
pillared
canopy. In the
last
two sections, chapel-like
areas flanked the walls. There were
the centre of the sixth
monumental
and seventh
altars,
house and a benben stone
set
wine
a
cult
altars in
sections. Within the
temple enclosure, on both sides of the temple
were several hundred
The
was covered with
rear portion of the fifth section
at
as a cult
further sanctuary, surrounded by gardens and
service buildings, lies at
Per-hayi. Instead of having a raised central nave, the
first
month
start of the inundation.
the front,
stores, a slaughter-
half-preserved,
was probably
cultivation, only
a s«/-festival complex.
northern part contains a huge 'coronation pillars (or
faience
perhaps
tiles.
altars).
The
hall'
walls were decorated with
The main building
in the centre of a
courtyard measures 100 x 170
m
and has a
massive pillared
portico in the middle flanked by royal statue pillars. interior
of
is
laid out in three
The
with 544
The
symmetrical parts consisting
numerous pillared halls interconnected by ramps.
on a podium. There were
probably extensive gardens here
also.
Further south along the Royal Road lay the
b)
slightly smaller Pa-hut- Aten,
measuring 108 x 191 m.
Its
enclosure wall had projecting rectangular towers reminiscent of a 'house of millions of years'. The
complex was divided of pylons.
The
first
was blocked by
into three courtyards
had
a
passageway 8.8
a stepped construction, like a
top of which would have been an
main
the
altar
by three pairs
m wide, which podium, on
In the first court,
altar.
was surrounded by 108 small
actual sanctuary
was
in the third court,
similarities to the sanctuary of the Per- Aten. that, like the latter,
with a large building
is
it
was divided
number
The
It is
likely
into
two and furnished
The
front part of the
flanked by walls. Before the construction of
this building, a large
high
stood in the area of the c)
of altars.
altars.
which had some
altar,
first
measuring 9.35 x 14.4 m,
court.
At the southern end of Amarna, there were two
garden sanctuaries, known as the Maru-en-pa-Aten
(Maru temple). The
larger of these
was partly occupied
by a sacred lake, measuring 60 x 120 m, and gardens,
and
it
was termed the 'sun shade' of
Nefertiti. In the bridge
north-east corner there was a unique construction, consisting of a pillared courtyard with
11
T-shaped
ponds. The bottom and sides of the basins were painted
Plan of Akhenaten's palace in the central area of A.
Badawy)
Amarna
(after
Amarna The so-called
'harim',
was made up of long
in the
complex
rooms, pillared water,
and
sunken
a
northern part. Interpretation of this
be the king's living
to
Road
quarters lay on the opposite side of the Royal a),
and
halls
is difficult.
The building thought
b)
Road,
lay along the Royal
some with pools of
courtyards,
garden
which
series of
11
to
being accessible via a bridge. The building was
surrounded by an enclosure, 123 x 140 laid out in a
U-shape around
m in size, and was
a garden, with the actual
residence at the rear, and servants' quarters and store
rooms forming the side-wings. The
Amarna;
at
it
was
royal residence
form of an enlarged type of the normal
in the
villa
found
was rather modest and consisted of
a
dwelling area, a court and store rooms.
The North
c)
Palace,
Plan, section
measuring 112 x 142 m, was
another cult palace serving an
unknown purpose;
it
and papyrus column from the tomb of Tutu
at
Amarna
Badawy)
(after A.
is
horseshoe-shaped, built round a pool of water and has a
T-shaped plan, b) a rock-cut chamber with a recess
throne room
colossal
at
the
end of
its
central axis. To the side of
The
the pool are buildings for rearing animals.
and
ceilings
nature,
d)
walls,
were decorated with scenes from
floors
and there was
a frieze of grapes
made
of fired
The meagre remains of the 'North Riverside
clay.
Palace'
lie at
the very northern end, surrounded by a turreted
wall;
this
may have been
the 'this
palace of
life'
the king.
image of the deceased and
The tombs of Meryre
halls with a statue niche.
Meryre
II
(Nos 4 and
Ay (No. 25)
2),
for a
one or two pillared
c)
I
and
Panehsy (No. 6), Tutu (No. 8) and
are architecturally significant, consisting of
two
pillared halls with
papyrus columns, carved
to four
out of the rock in elaborate forms and painted. The
antechamber of the tomb of Ay was intended
to
have three
rows of eight columns, and that of Tutu would have contained two rows of six columns, with the rearmost
3.
Settlements
columns joined by screen walls. The burial chambers
Residential areas have been found in four sites: a
m
20-25
below, following the traditions of the
northern settlement, a northern suburb, the centre and a
tombs of the time of Amenhotep
southern suburb. The houses of the upper classes are
descending passageways
particularly prominent, in the
the
main
streets of the
form of
villas lying
southern part of the
city.
along
consist of large enclosures containing courtyards, gardens, stabling,
workshops, a
well, store houses, servant
reflect the cyclical
They
accom-
The
royal
desert valley. royal
Their spiral
III.
have been intended to
progress of the sun.
tomb Its
may
lay
Theban
is
located 6
km
east of the
town
in a
plan diverges from that of the previous
tombs by the replacement of the L-shaped
modation, a garden shrine and, most important, the main
arrangement of rooms and corridors by
house. This was usually only one storey high but with a
alignment, probably to conform to the ideology of the
roof terrace. In the centre, projecting above the level of
course of the sun's disc. This innovation continued in use
the roof,
was a
pillared hall.
The inner part of the house
contained the owner's bedroom and bathroom. Such
houses were often lavishly decorated.
Good examples 'workmen's desert. strips,
It
village',
was divided by
m five
in size,
which
narrow
lies in
the
streets into six
each containing twelve separate houses.
tombs of the 19th and 20th Dynasties.
Bibliography (select): 1894);
of smaller houses are found in the
70 x 70
in the royal
Norman de
W.M.
On
(London 1903-1908); Paul Timme,
partially
Tell
1923-24,
in:
JEA 10 (1924) 289-305;
El-'Amarnah, JEA
Amarna
are 43 only
complete tombs of the courtiers of Akhenaten. In
contrast to the great variety of the preceding
Thebes, these are reduced
to three
main types:
tombs
a) a
at
simple
Amarna (London
el-Amarna vor der Deutschen
at Tell
76-126; R. Stadelmann, swt-Rc
Neuen
Reich,
in:
T.
El-'Amarnah,
el-'Amarnah, 1926-7, JEA 13 (1927)
MDAIK
I-III;
Badawy, Architecture
als Kultstatte
25 (1969) 159-178;
Urban Society
in
II
des Sonnengottes im
Amarna, in: Helck,L4 VI 309-319; B.Kemp, The a Source for the Study of
at
Whittemore, The Excavations
(1926) 3-12; H. Frankfort, Preliminary
12
209-218; Peet, City of Akhenaten
the eastern edge of the bay of
Tell el
Ausgrabung (Leipzig 1917); EG. Newton, Excavations
at
Tombs
Flinders Petrie,
Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amarna, 6 Vols
Report on the Excavations 4.
a straight axial
B.J.
Kemp,
Tell
el-
City of el- Amarna as
Ancient Egypt,
in:
World
Ambulatory temple
12
Archaeology 9 (1977/78) 123-139; Borchardt, 1980); A. Badawy, Le
symbolisme de
L'Egyptologie en 1979 (Paris 1982) 187-194;
el-Amarna Expedition, 1977-82,
Tell B.J.
Tell
in:
B.J.
ASAE
1940); Arnold, Temples 285-288; G. Haeny, Peripteraltempel in
el-Amarna (Berlin
Amarna,
l'architecture a
Agypten,
in:
in:
M.
Bietak, Ed., Archaische Griechische
^7
70 (1984/85) 83-97;
Kemp, Amarna Reports I-VI (London 1984-1994);
Tempel und
Agypten (Vienna 2001) 89-106.
Kemp, Report on the
D.B. Redford,
Akhenaten. The Heretic King (Princeton 1984); G.T. Martin, The Royal
Tomb
el-Amarna, 2 Vols (London 1974, 1984); E.L. Meyers,
at
Component Design
B.J.
Amarna Tomb
as a Narrative Device in
the History of Art, Vol. 16 (Washington
Studies in
Kemp, The Amarna Workmen's
Cyril Aldred,
Village, in:
Art, in:
1985) 35-51;
JEA 73 (1987) 21-50;
Akhenaten, King of Egypt (London 1988);
B.J.
Kemp,
Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization (London-New York 1989, reprinted 1993) 261-317;
B.J.
Kemp and
S. Garfi,
A
Survey of the
Ancient City of El-Amarna (London 1993).
Ambulatory temple A type of temple or chapel common architecture from the Middle
Egyptian
in
Kingdom onwards: not
but similar to Greek peripteral temples,
identical
surrounded on three or four sides by a corridor lined with pillars or columns. In a wider context
whose centre does not
structures
structure, serving instead as a
barques
for
etc.
(kiosk).
it
includes
temporary resting place
Amenemhat
Temples whose outer walls, which are only visible
at
An
Amenemhat
Ramesseum
wadi behind the
screen walls, and whose pillared halls surround a solid
complex which
inner temple building. The outer walls have a slight
traditions of the temple of
batter. These are predominantly birth all
Buhen
pyramid of
I,
incomplete tomb of
the corners, are interrupted by rows of columns with
barque shrines, above
at
(see also Buhen, for facade)
The following types can be
distinguished in their form and function: a)
Restored plan of the Thutmoside ambulatory temple of Horus
consist of a solid
houses and
of the Ptolemaic period.
beyond the to
b) Temples surrounded on three or four sides,
at
I
had been planned
initial stages.
remote
lies in a
Thebes, but the temple
Mentuhotep
following
the
did not progress
After the removal of the court
pyramid 'The Places of Amenemhat
El-Lisht, the
Appear' was built following Memphite traditions but
may
including the corners, by a corridor lined with pillars or
using strange elements which
columns, surrounding a solid inner temple building. The
Thebes. The complex contains blocks from the pyramid
outer walls are vertical. the temple of this
type
is
El-Amada, c)
The
Mentuhotep
typical of the
example
earliest at
found
is
in
Deir el-Bahari; otherwise,
Thutmoside period (Buhen,
Satet temple at Elephantine).
Free-standing kiosks surrounded on
temples of Khufu, Khafre, Userkaf, Unas and Pepy
The pyramid measures 84 x 84 high.
The sloping entrance
all
four sides, is
no
wall of the pyramid,
unknown
on
example first
is
appear
the Chapelle
Blanche
(Fig.); later
examples
in the 18th Dynasty.
Bibliography:
Borchardt,
Tempel mil
Umgang; H. Steckeweh,
Reiches,
in: 17.
Internationaler Kongrefi fur Archdologie 1939 (Berlin
a
temple of
contain blocks from a temple jointly built by
Amenemhat
and Senwosret
Bibliography:
J.-E.
I.
To the east are the remains of a ramp
Gautier and G. Jequier,Foui7/« de Licht (Cairo 1902);
excavation reports in 3
Oberagyptische Architektur zu Beginn des Mitderen und des Neuen
is
foundations
and a small valley temple.
a
into the
a lower level,
was the only type of ambulatory temple which stood on
earliest
still
down
measuring 21 x 32 m.
I
The
is
a shaft,
Its
date,
served as se^-festival chapels and barque stations. This
vertical.
which
chamber with
possibly for canopies, which disappears
period.
podium. Their outer walls are
corridor,
groundwater. Standing in front of the eastern protecting
central structure. Kiosks were popular in the Ethiopian
d) Chapels with a surrounding pillared corridor
II.
m and was perhaps 59 m
blocked, led into a small burial
including the corners, by rows of columns. There
have originated in
EMMA 2 (Apr 1907) 61-63; 2 (July 1907)
(May 1908) 83-84;
1
13-117;
3 (Oct 1908) 184-188; 9 (Oct 1914) 207-222; 16
(Nov 1921) 5-19; 17 (Dec 1922) 4-18; Dorothea Arnold, Amenemhat I
and the Early Twelfth Dynasty at Thebes, in: BMMA 26(1 99 1)16-21.
Amenemhat
III,
pyramid at Dahshur
13
entrance to the burial chamber
Plan and section of the inner chambers of the pyramid of Amenemhat
Amenemhat
pyramid of
II,
measuring approximately 93 x 225 m, itself,
84
is is
Provided
for',
Dahshur. The
at
m high, possibly called 'Amenemhat
is
Prepared' consisted of a stone core supported by radial walls, but
it
has been completely destroyed. The entrance
corridor, faced with stone,
was protected from the weight
Two granite sliding
above by weight-relieving
slabs.
blocks sealed the entrance
to the small burial
The sarcophagus was made of into the ground.
this
and
set
The complicated construction of the flat
ceiling
chamber, a sloping corridor
some
direction led to
chamber.
slabs of quartzite
relieving slabs over this chamber's
From
at
Dahshur
antechambers and
The pyramid complex 'Amenemhat pyramid
II
is
unique.
in the reverse
sort of possible subsidiary
tombr
chamber contained
a
ka-tomb. The vaulted burial
a beautiful granite
sarcophagus with
palace facade decoration. To the west was a sideentrance into the complex of chambers belonging to two
queens,
who were
antechambers
also provided with
and a ka-tomb each. The pyramid was enclosed within a wall
which was niched on the front and had
smooth
interior.
temple, as well as
No remains inscribed
pits for
boat burials in the south.
of the cult temple have survived.
pyramidion of black basalt belonging
pyramid (now
a
There was also a causeway and a valley
in the
An
to the
Egyptian Museum, Cairo) was
found in the debris of the pyramid temple. To the south of the
causeway were
the remains of a brick building
pyramid was
The buildings of the pyramid complex and the temple,
similar to a palace. To the north of the
flanked by two massive entrance bastions, have been
the virtually intact but relatively poor burial of King
completely destroyed.
Awibre Hor of the early 13th Dynasty. The rooms within
Bibliography:
the pyramid were so badly
De Morgan, Dahchour 1894-95.
damaged
as
a
result of
subsidence during construction that attempts to support
Amenemhat Amenemhat complex
at
III,
III
pyramid at Dahshur
began construction on
Dahshur
measuring 105 x 105
early in his reign.
m
and 75
m
his
The pyramid,
high, consists of a
brick core with a limestone casing. Inside cated system of corridors
the structure proved futile;
pyramid
is
a compli-
and chambers. In addition
the burial chamber, the king
was provided with
to
15
abandoned and
(Amenemhat Bibliography:
a
work on the complex was erected at Hawara
new pyramid was
III).
De Morgan, Dahchour 1894 86-117; De Morgan,
Dahchour 1894-95 98-109; Arnold, Amenemhet III.
Amenemhat
14
III,
—
—
.;
isysWW'
pyramid at Hawara "
——
~ '
—
Nubhetpetkhered
~
u~
—
-
•
•
-
,
,
Plan of the pyramid precinct of Amenemhat
Amenemhat
III,
III at
>
Dahshur
pyramid at Hawara built by Amenemhat
The pyramid complex
of quartzite, weighing III at
the
ceiling
was
more than 100 tonnes;
the
built using horizontal slabs of quartzite,
entrance to the Faiyum as a replacement for the
with a weight-relieving vault of limestone beams,
damaged pyramid at Dahshur was probably called 'Amenemhat Lives'. The complex was described by
weighing 55 tonnes, and a 7
Herodotus, Strabo and Diodoros and compared with the
chamber
'labyrinth' at
complexity.
Knossos on account of
The 158 x 385
m
precinct
north-south and so badly damaged travellers' descriptions,
it
that,
its is
size
and
orientated
even using old
cannot be reconstructed.
It is
rested
lies
m
high brick vault which
on the surrounding rock rather than on the itself.
The quartzite sarcophagus, which now
submerged under subsoil
was niched.
water,
Nearby was the pyramid burial of Princess Neferuptah,
now
completely dismantled, and the court necropolis.
Bibliography: Herodotus, History
II
148-49;
LD
47, Text
I
II
11-28:
possibly based on an Early Dynastic divine fortress,
W.M.F. Petrie, Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinoe (London
and has numerous chapels, reminiscent of the buildings
W.M.F. Petrie, Kahun, Gurob and Hawara (London 1890); W.M.F.
of the precinct of Djoser, which represented the gods of
Petrie,
each
nome
statue cult.
and 58
m
in
Egypt as well as emphasising the royal
The brick pyramid, 102 x 102 high,
was cased
in
improvements were incorporated
m
in size
the king's
The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Mazghuna (London 1912)
N. Farag
and
A.B. Lloyd,
Z. Iskander,
K. Michalowsky,
in order to prevent the
in:
chamber was carved out of a monolithic block
D.
in:
JEA 56 (1970) 81-100;
The Labyrinth Enigma: archaeological suggestions,
JEA 54 (1968) 219-222;
1072-1074;
28ff.
The Discovery ofNeferwptah (Cairo 1971)
The Egyptian Labyrinth,
limestone. Technical
catastrophe which had befallen the preceding structure:
1889)
L.
Habachi, Hawara,
Arnold, Labyrinth,
in:
Helck,
LA
III
in:
Helck,
905-907.
LA
II
11
Amenhotep
mortuary temple (Thebes)
III,
15
mortuary temple
'Labyrinth' court of chapels
1
1
1
1
1
•
1
1
->
causeway
1
1
Plan of the pyramid precinct of Amenemhat
Amenemhat A
large
itional
tomb
Surer,
300
00
III at
Hawara, with the 'Labyrinth'
of
on the West Bank
Theban tomb (TT 48) dating from period between
Unfinished,
Amenhotep
the largest
it is
III
the trans-
and Akhenaten.
example of the monumental
excesses of the private tombs of this period. With
m and
length of 63
its
its
four consecutive halls of columns,
Abu
Simbel.
it is
only exceeded in size by the temple of
An
additional room, inserted between the normal
room (containing
longitudinal
a
colonnade of two rows
of ten columns) and the cult chamber,
remarkable
for its four
rows of
(only otherwise found in the Bibliography:
1933) 23-24,
is
particularly
six tent-pole
columns
Akhmenu).
Torgny Save-Soderbergh, Four Eighteenth
10;
of
into the rock, has
two
(TT 41) dates from,
and has an architecturally The
lateral
forecourt,
which
sunk
is
pillared halls, that on the
south side decorated with statue pillars. Beyond are a transverse hall with four pillars, a deep passage
and a
statue cult chamber. Bibliography: Jan
was surrounded by an
m thick. The
southern part was occupied by the temple complex, which
was divided by four brick pylons the
main building of
Memnon
stood in front of the
two further
into four courtyards
the temple. first
pylon,
which stood
in front of the magnificent
is 1
m high
1.55 m).
avenue of gateway,
colonnaded court,
halls containing three or four
columns, 14.20
An
to the fourth
measuring 85 x 86 m, surrounded on
temple
and there were
colossi in front of the second.
sphinxes led from the third pylon
all
four sides by
rows of papyrus
(the height of those at the Luxor
Between the columns of the front rows
m
high; those in the northern half were of
main
2 Vols
hypostyle hall which followed the courtyard.
assume
It is
mortuary temple (Thebes)
which only
a small
amount of
debris
is
now
III,
were
separate cult axes for the cult of Amun-Re in the southern half
and
that of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris in the northern half.
The gigantic proportions of the temple were matched by and
stelae.
Among
the
countless sculptural remains are hundreds of statues of
Sekhmet,
III,
safe to
that, besides the cult of the king, there
alabaster
sphinxes
with
crocodile
sandstone sphinxes with Anubis heads and a
The 'house of millions of years' of Amenhotep
of the
is left
temple building beyond are the remains of the
the liberal provision of statues
Assmann, Das Grab des Amenemope TT41,
(Mainz 1991).
Amenhotep
and
The two colossi of
quartzite, in the southern granite. All that
The Theban tomb of Amenemopet
beautiful superstructure.
It
enclosure wall measuring 700 x 550 m, 8.5
the king, 8
the early 19th Dynasty
Thebes. This was originally the largest
on the east and west sides of the courtyard stood statues of
Dynasty Tombs (Oxford, 1957) 33-49.
Amenemopet, tomb
at
temple ever erected in Egypt.
columned
Ludwig Borchardt, Allerhand Kleinigkeiten (Leipzig Bl.
380
tails,
life-size
alabaster statue of a hippopotamus. Also within the of
visible, lies
enclosure wall were additional brick buildings, gardens
and
lakes, as well as a
temple
to Sokar.
The temple had
Amenhotep, temple of
16
poor foundations and was probably destroyed by an earthquake early It
in the reign of
Merenptah
(c.
1220 BC).
has been levelled partly as a result of stone quarrying,
and partly by the inundation of the
temple of
Khonsu
at
Medinet Habu and
in
in the
Karnak.
Bibliography: Strabo, Geographka
17/1/46; Description
II,
Plates
(Wiesbaden 1981); L'Egypte
restitute
163-165;
Betsy Bryan, The Statue Program for the Mortuary Temple of
Amenhotep
III;
II),
probably dates from
basically Egyptian
its
rounded corner posts, and the
c.
570 BC.
some con-
features,
und
Quirke, Temple, 57-81; Susanne Bickel, Tore
suggest that Greek in
its
elongated.
An open
15
x 51.6 m,
construction.
main temple
oasis temples, the plan of the
all
building, measuring
from
like,
from Cyrenaica were involved
artisans
Like
20-22; Gerhard Haeny, Untersuchungen im Totentempel Amenophis' 111 BeitrageBf 11
Despite
struction techniques, vertical walls, the absence of
Nile.
Blocks from the temple have been re-used in the
temple of Merenptah,
Mediterranean coast. The present building, founded by
Amasis (Ahmose
remarkably
is
forecourt at the front
entered
is
pronaos. Votive offerings from grateful oracle
a
recipients,
mentioned
been placed
in literary texts, are likely to
have
both court and pronaos. Behind was an
in
andere wiederverwendete Bauteile Amenophis' III. Untersuchungen im
inner chamber with two pillars and the sanctuary, joined
Totentempel des Merenptah in Theben,Vo\.
along their western elevation by the
3,
BeitrageBf 16 (Stuttgart
hall,
where oracles
may have been proclaimed. The oracle was consulted in 331 BC by Alexander the Great. Next to the temple, to the
1997).
west,
lie
the remains of the palace buildings of the ruler
of the oasis, with the women's quarters housing the
queen and the harem priests'
in the north-eastern corner,
accommodation and barracks
in front of
and the
them
to
the south-east.
Situated slightly to the south are the remains of the
Umm
temple of
Ubayda, with a pillared pronaos and
rooms beyond. The two temples
several adjoining
are
have been connected by a processional way,
likely to
suggesting the existence of a cultic link between them. Bibliography: A. Fakhry, Recent Excavations at the Temple of the
Oracle at Siwa Oasis,
of Egypt
I.
in: Festschrift
Ammoneion (Mainz Plan and section of the
tomb
of
Amenemhat
Surer (TT 48) at Thebes
(after L. Borchardt)
Amenhotep A
(son of Hapu), temple of mortuary temple of
particularly large private
famous
155-156; Klaus Oracle, in:
civil officer
of
Amenhotep
III,
Ricke 17-33; A. Fakhry, The Oases
Siwa Oasis (Cairo 1973); Klaus
P.
P.
Kuhlmann, The Preservation of
ASAE 75
Kuhlmann, Das
1988). Reconstruction: L'Egypte restituee the
II
Temple of the
(1999-2000) 63-89.
"t^E this
T^
who (in company Roman period
with Imhotep) was worshipped up to the as a
god of learning. The 45 x
1
10
m brick structure bore
the hallmarks of a 'house of millions of years'. layout of the
first
court
very deep pool, 25 x 26
is
The
particularly interesting, with a
m in size, fed by subsoil water,
its
four sides planted with 20 trees in pits. At the rear of this
court
is
portico.
the front of the temple, decorated with a pillared
Amenhotep's tomb
is
likely to
be somewhere
in
the hills further to the west. Bibliography: C. Robichon
and A.
Amenhotep fits de Hapou (Cairo
Ammoneion Famous
Vafille,
Le temple du scribe royal
1936).
(Siwa Oasis)
oracular temple of
Amun
at
west of the Nile valley and 300
Aghurmi, 500
km
km
south of the
20 Plan and section of the
25
Ammoneion, founded by Amasis, at Siwa
Oasis
Amun Amun
precinct (Karnak)
and
The Amun precinct of Ipet-sut at Karnak was, in
m=
510 x 510 x 700
size
(530 x
123 hectares) and accumulation of
outstanding monuments, Egypt's most important and splendid sanctuary.
Mut
ways with the away, and the
was connected by processional
Luxor temple,
precinct, the
bank of the
set off to visit the
plan, see
It
from where
Nile,
km
2.5
Amun
would
temples of the kings on the West Bank (for
Thutmosis
built the
limestone temple,
was surrounded by 37.4 x 39.6
pillars.
Akhmenu;
by him; and
to the east of this wall
in front of the Lateran in
The
Amenhotep
a
m
first
Senwosret
built in the reign of
I,
way leading
was extended
Blocks of stone from
structure stood engaged statue
monuments
one furnished with the alabaster plinth
for
The brick enclosure wall
the shrine of the cult image.
to the west
king.
many
work
from the 12th and early
The southern
m
high,
axis concluded with the
and two quartzite
Mut and
in front of the
the Luxor temple were probably
Amun
pushed further west,
become
a sanctuary of
supra- regional importance, particularly in the reign of
Amenhotep
I.
In the reign of
Thutmosis
I,
the temple
temple meant that the tree-
erected at the front.
fifth
removed
Thutmosis
secondary pylon
in the reign of
I, II
and
installation. In the reigns of
the temple
fortified
II
III; at
was
with an east III),
a
the front lay the quay
Hatshepsut and Thutmosis
was enlarged by a brick enclosure wall
with towers, and
at the
same period
the sacred
lake was either constructed or enlarged. In front of
Senwosret
I's
structure stood a great fore-temple with a
new barque sanctuary (Chapelle Rouge). Standing front of the
m
set
up two
high, between the fourth and
which were
later
Thutmosis
III.
fifth
obelisks,
pylons,
hidden from view by walls erected by
A new
pylon (the sixth) was erected
(leading towards the
Mut
III,
in the reigns
of
Tutankhamun and Horemheb, with the addition of the ninth pylon along the southern axis, and the 35
98
m
wide second pylon
m high,
in the west, using material
derived from the demolished Aten precinct {talatat).
Between the second and third pylons the hypostyle hall
was erected during the reigns of Horemheb, Sety Ramesses station
II.
In the reign of
was added
Ramesses
in front of the
III,
I
and
a larger barque
second pylon and, in the
south-west corner of the precinct of Amun, a to
Khonsu was
5.
Third Intermediate and Late Periods
new temple
built.
the area in front of the second pylon
Under Sheshonq
I,
was closed
form a colonnaded court with
off to
its
main
entrance on the west side and secondary entrances on the north- and south-facing sides (the 'Bubastite Portal'). In
Two
the reign of Taharqa, a
on the southern
axis
(Taharqa, colonnade of) was erected in this courtyard,
fifth
precinct), the eighth, built
by
Hatshepsut, with four colossal statues, and the seventh,
bv Thutmosis
a
Amarna period,
pylon.
between the barque shrine and the large pylons were erected
Post-Amarna
4.
in
barque shrine are the two heraldic pillars of
Upper and Lower Egypt. Hatshepsut
first
pylon by an avenue of sphinxes.
new phase of construction work began
Amenhotep
in front of the
stands today, connected to the
the pillared
is
south and pairs of obelisks
to the
erected by Thutmosis
was continually being
ended up
Following the interruption caused by the
court 'Wadjet'. In front of the fourth pylon there
(later
still
it
pylons newly
Between these pylons
originally a festival court of
podium, which
until
was
surrounded by an enveloping stone enclosure wall connecting with the fourth and
colossi of the
and furnished with 60 sphinxes. Construction
lined harbour basin at the front
to
II.
and
earlier small chapels
in this area, dating
the temple of
(Chapelle Blanche).
The precinct was enlarged
m high
The processional ways connecting the complex with
rebuilt
Early 18th Dynasty
and south: the
18th Dynasties, were incorporated into the foundations
surrounded several other, smaller barque stations
built
to Luxor.
flagpoles, replacing the older pylon of Thutmosis
brick enclosure wall. In front of
front half of the temple, probably consisting
other, the last
new
m high, now
was added, with eight approximately 40
third pylon
10th pylon, 35
30.34
also
III
axis
of this structure.
III
was
Rome). Six barque stations were
erected along the processional
the rear half were three cult chambers, one behind the
pylon
I,
temple to
he erected a solar
sanctuary with a single central obelisk (33
of a sacred garden, was surrounded by pillared halls. In
2.
Thutmosis
a small
Ptah, outside the old enclosure wall, to the north, built
The temple
This period has the oldest architectural remains: the
this
temple, on the
I's
earlier building possibly of
III
17
Karnak). The main construction periods were:
Middle Kingdom
large
a pair of obelisks. East of Senwosret
remains of an
3. 1.
precinct (Karnak)
with two seated colossal statues
monumental
and also roofed colonnades at the
pillared
kiosk
in front of three other pylons:
Month precinct to the north, at a solar sanctuary of
Ramesses
II
to the east
and
at
the temple of
Khonsu.
Anathyrosis
18
The reign of Nectanebo wall, 21
m
when
I,
the present enclosure
was constructed with monumental
high,
gateways in the northern area leading to the precinct of
Month and
Khonsu (Bab
front of the temple of
in
el-Amara). The barque turning station of Akoris dates to
The enclosure was completed under
the 29th Dynasty.
and
IV.
pylon, 100
m
the rule of Ptolemies
through the reached
first
III
The main entrance was in width,
which never
intended height of 34 m. The final important
its
Karnak was the Opet temple
cult building at
built in the
Ptolemaic period. Bibliography
(select):
topographique
et
Auguste
Etude
Karnak,
Mariette-Bey,
archeologique (Leipzig 1875); L. Borehardt, Zur
Baugeschichte des Amontempels,
in:
und Altertumskunde Agyptens
5
Untersuchungen zur Geschkhte (1905); Georges Legrain, Les
temples de Karnak (Brussels 1929); Paul Barguet, La structure du
temple Ipet-Sout d'Amon a Karnak du Moyen Empire a Amenophis II, in:
BIFAO 52
(
1953) 145-155; Paul Barguet, Le temple d'Amon-Re
a Karnak. Essai d'exegese (Cairo 1962); Karnak I-VIII;
Karnak
Domaine du
d'Egypt.
de Lubicz, G. Mire and
V.
site (Paris
histoire et archeologie 61
(Paris 1987); Golvin,
Karnak
F.
Le Saout
et al.,
293-323;
l'explication
de
J.
Lauffray,
in:
Dossiers
Karnak d'Egypte
(Paris 1987); L'Egypte restituee 81-120;
HAB
I,
6 (Hildesheim 1978);
Golvin
and
El-Sayed
I,
Hegazy,
in:
Karnak
Essai
de
forme et des caracteristiques generates des grandes
enceintes de Karnak, fetes'
Karnak en Egypte,
Le moyen empire a Karnak: Varia
J.-C.
la
(1982);
Amenophis
Franz-Jiirgen Schmitz,
VIII
and Jean-Claude Golvin, Karnak.
1984);
in:
de Thoutmosis
II
Karnak IX 145-160; a Karnak, in:
The Egyptian administrative centre of Lower Nubia with on the West Bank of the Nile between
a fortress
and Qasr Ibrim. The
fortress,
erected in the Middle
Kingdom over an
of the Old Kingdom.
was enlarged
becoming a
fortress
It
town
L.
Gabolde, La 'cour de
in
Egypt (London 1999)
44-66.
to achieve perfect joints,
blocks were carefully dressed, along the contact bands,
while the centres of the blocks were similar
left
rough and
method was used
in
Egypt
from the Old Kingdom onwards. Tool marks show that the front edges of adjoining casing blocks were
temple
Horus
to
built over
an
treated in the
onwards, the rear edges of blocks were
same
way.
1941), Plates 15, 16, 24, 48; Lauer, Histoire
253; D. Arnold,
monumentale
Der Tempel des Konigs Mentuhotep von Deir el-Bahari
(Mainz 1974) 41; Jean Jacquet, Le
Middle Kingdom
Tombs belonging to the Egyptian colony of the Middle Kingdom consist of a vaulted cult chapel with the actual burial below
became
it.
Ramesside period,
In the
combination of a pyramid and a
a
this
cult chapel,
fronted by a forecourt with a pylon, and the burial not far
underground.
Bibliography: GeoigStrindorff, Anfto, 3 Vols (Gliickstadt 1935, 1937);
Save-Soderbergh, Aniba,
T.
LA
in:
I
272-278; Hein, Ramessidische
Bautatigkeit 27-29.
Ankhhaf, tomb of The
large stone
mastaba G 7510 of Prince Ankhhaf
(brother of Khufu) at Giza, 51.8 x 100
m
massive core containing a
and serdab, and
fronted along the southern
offering chapel.
cult chapel
end of the
in size, with a
east side
The tomb contained the
by
a
brick
delicately
modelled and painted bust of Ankhhaf, now in the
Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston, 27.442.
Bibliography: D.
(1939) Fig.
p.
Dunham,
of the Mus. of Fine Arts Boston 37
in: Bull,
43; Reisner, Giza
I,
Fig. 8.
Ankhhor, tomb of An important Theban tomb
in the Assasif
rooms
(c.
590 BC).
(TT 414), Its
super-
divided into three parts. The subterranean
is
are arranged in the sequence
open courtyard,
pillared hall, cult chamber and burial apartments. The
tomb has benefited from ological research
and
particularly thorough archae-
restoration.
Bibliography: Manfred Bietak and Elfriede Reisner- Haslauer, Das
Grab des Anch-Hor, 2 Vols (Vienna 1978, 1982).
Anta, see also pilaster A pillar-like fronting piece on
a wall, frequently
found
in
Egyptian architecture:
Bibliography: H.E. Winlock, The Temple ofHibis in El Khdrgeh Oasis
(New York
earlier
structure.
sawn
with a short copper saw or a sheet of metal. From the
New Kingdom
m
(80,000 sq m). Inside are the remains of a Thutmoside
structure
used by Greek masons. Only the outer, visible edges of
A
New Kingdom,
covering an area of 200 x 400
belonging to the Late Period
slightly recessed.
earlier structure
in the
Karnak IX 1-100. General:
Karnak I-IX; N. and H. Strudwick, Thebes
Anathyrosis A method of fitting masonry
Amada
measuring 87 x 138 m, was
1979); R.A. Schwaller
divin (Paris
Mire, Les Temples de Karnak, 2 Vols
(Paris 1982); Claude Traunecker
Resurrection d'un
I.auffray,
J.
Aniba
tresor
de Thoutmosis
1983) 124, Fig. 25; Arnold, Building 43, 45, 123, 267.
ler (Cairo
a)
Where
the front of a temple
is
open, then ends of
the walls are formed into antae. In the temple at Deu-
el-Medina they are formed In
formed
at the
walls have
into three- sided
Hathor
pronaoi and birth houses, double antae
pillars.
all
corners due to the opening up of
ail
four
the characteristics of the walls themselves
Anubieion (Saqqara) (sloping exterior, vertical interior surfaces
and decorated
like the rest of the wall).
b) Antae or pilasters
the final element in a
support the architrave as
row of columns,
for
example
at the
junction with the sloping face of a pylon or the front of a
temple (as
Medinet Habu and
at
the birth
house
Dendera). Depending on the slope of the adjoining
at
wall,
they widen towards the top, to the width of the architrave.
The cavetto cornice on the top architrave by a small c)
A form
abacus the two
is
separated from the
is
tombs
(as in
particular to Egypt
Medinet Madi and
found
at
Amarna).
at the
main temples
at
whose purpose
The corner
pillars of
Asyut.
Amarna
unknown.
is
row of
pillars
own
and, like them, have a shaft and their
the eastern edge of the desert near
New Kingdom,
of the early
Qaw
el-Kebir
brick temple, 20
m
in length, of the First Intermediate
Period, with an altar court
beyond
m)
covering the remains of a
and two sanctuary chambers
it.
Bibliography: Description IV 89, Plates 38-42;
Gardner Wilkinson,
J.
Topography of Thebes and General View of Egypt (London 1835) 391.
Antinopolis (Antinoe) The ruin of
Roman
a
city near
Ashmunein, founded by Hadrian
barque stations
antae: they only continue the
On
are the ruins of a brick temple (measuring 16.8 x 28
temple of
(Per-Aten and Pa-hut-Aten), in the form of two extended side-walls
were removed by Ibrahim Pasha for re-use in a palace at
may
19
are not true
along one side
capital.
who drowned city wall,
Sheikh Abada, opposite
memory of Antinous,
in
there. Considerable
remains of parts of the
including columned streets, a triumphal
gateway, two temples, a theatre and a hippodrome to the
the desert, were found by the Napoleonic
Bibliography: Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire, Plates 36-37; Davies, El
east
Amarna
Expedition. Almost nothing remains now. The meagre
VI, Plates 11-12; Jequier, AfanuW, 102-106.
in
remains of a temple of Ramesses
with a columned
II
courtyard, a hypostyle hall and a sanctuary survive to the west of the
city.
Bibliography: Description IV, Plates 53-61 in:
Helck,
LA
Universita di
Anta extending the architrave above a row of columns up
I
;
S.
Donadoni, Antinooupolis,
323-325; Missione Archeologica
Roma, Antinoe (1965-1968) (Rome
in Egitto
dell'
1974).
to the sloping
front of a pylon
Antaeopolis (Qaw el-Kebir) The ruins of
a formerly grand limestone temple of
Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe, dedicated 45 x 60 m, of the
45
km south of Asyut. Structures which have
survived are the 4
m
high granite naos from the
sanctuary and the later pronaos of the temple, which consisted of three rows of six capitals, together
the
ceiling.
columns with palm
with their architraves and beams from
Above the 18.6
m
Ruins of a
Roman
portico at Antinopolis (after Description IV, Plate 55)
measuring
within a large brick enclosure on the edge
lie
river,
to Anty,
high facade was a
Anubieion (Saqqara) An important Graeco-Roman situated
temple precinct of Anubis,
on the edge of the desert escarpment
(north of the Bubasteion).
It is
at
Saqqara
enclosed by a brick wall
measuring 250 x 250 m, which
causeway of the Serapeum, with
is
crossed by the
a great
number
buildings on either side. In the south-west
is
of cult
an elevated
dedicatory inscription in Greek of Ptolemy VI and
platform occupied by the remains of the temple to
The temple was washed away between 1813
Anubis. There are also some interesting subterranean
Cleopatra.
and 1821 by Nile approached
floods,
to within 15
which
m
of
it.
in
1798 had already
The remaining stones
structures consisting of chambers
whose
decorated with figures of Bes modelled in
walls were clay.
Other
Apries, palace of
20
some
notable features are a dog cemetery,
administrative
buildings and dwelling houses.
Architect Egyptian architects did not sign their buildings, so their
Bibliography: Auguste Mariette, Le Serapeum de
Memphis
(Paris
can only be identified from their
activities
such as
'Royal Master Builder', 'Chief Royal Master of Building
JEA 64 (1968) 10-21; 65 (1979) 17-29; 66 (1980) 17-27; 67 (1981)
Works', 'Overseer of Constructions' and from their
21-23; D.G. Jeffreys and H.S. Smith, The Anubieion at Saqqara.
biographies, which recount their achievements. Several
Settlement
and
the Temple Precinct
I.
The
(London 1990).
from the Old Kingdom appear
texts
master builders
'masters', like the
Apries, palace of
projects,
The vast fortress palace of Apries, measuring 1 10 x 136 m,
are identical with the architects
is
titles
and D.G. Jeffreys, The Anubieion, North Saqqara, in:
1882); H.S. Smith
situated in the north-west corner of the city walls at
Memphis.
It
follows the
being on a platform, 13 built using cellular
form of
m
late fortress palaces in
high, above a substructure
construction.
It
was paved with
limestone, on top of which stood the actual structure,
now
most of which
is
decorated with
reliefs,
lost.
The entrance gateway was
based on Old Kingdom models,
followed by an entrance hall, 8 x 35
m, with
a
double row
were responsible
who
Hemiunu
pyramids from Sneferu
Khnumenti, Nekhebu and Impy,
the
tomb of Thutmosis
temple of Hatshepsut), Hepusoneb (architect of
(responsible for the colossi of
pillared court to the north contained Bibliography:
W.M.
(London 1909);
B.
columns 15
Flinders Petrie, The Palace of Apries
open,
m high.
(Memphis
II)
Kemp, The Palace of Apries at Memphis, in: MDAIK
33 (1977) 101-108; W. Kaiser, Die dekorierte Torfassade des spatzeitlichen Palastbezirkes
von Memphis,
123-144.
in:
MDAIK
43 (1986)
tomb of Hatshepsut), Amenhotep, son
works
and
Senenmut (who may have
I),
m
An
other
II;
architects included Ineni (responsible for obelisks
the
high.
five
after Inti himself)
constructed pyramids from Djedkare to Pepy
built the
13
Khufu);
generations of the family of Senedjemib Inti (Mehi,
was supported on
palm columns,
(precinct of
(responsible for the
(possibly)
to
and
created the designs.
Famous names among them were Imhotep Djoser), Nefermaat and
measuring 32 x 35 m, whose four rows of four
confirm that these
medieval building
for the technical execution
of seven columns. These structures led into a central hall ceiling
to in
of
Hapu
Memnon, and building Karnak), Amenemone (architect of the
at
Ramesseum) and Hatey (who
built the
hypostyle hall
Karnak).
at
Bibliography: G.A. Reisner, 1
in:
ASAE
13(1913) 248-249; Junker, Giza
149-153; F.W. von Bissing, Baumeister und Bauten aus
des Neuen Reiches,
in:
memoria
Studi in
dem Beginn
di lppolito Rosellini (Pisa
1949) 127-234; H. Kees, Eine Familie kbniglicher Maurermeister aus
dem Anfang
?l
der
N
Handwerker und 31
Dynastie,
LA
I
in:
BIFAO
Egypt
s
WZKM 54
(
1957) 91-100; W. Helck.
654-655; Rosemarie Drenkhahn, Die
ihre Tdtigkeiten
(Wiesbaden 1976) 89-94;
Kbnigsbezirk in:
6.
Helck,
Bauleiter, in:
n pr'3 und die
im R.
alien Agypten, Agyptolog. Abh.
Stadelmann, Die hntjw-s, der
Namen
der Grabanlagen der Friihzeit,
81 Suppl (1981) 158; N. Strudwick, The Administration of
in the
Old Kingdom (London 1985) 217-250.
Architectural ceramics (inlaid tiles)
Made
of bluish green or brightly coloured faience,
varying from simple
tiles
to figured motifs,
and
ceramics
were of great decorative value in architecture. In tombs,
from as early as the green
tiles
1st
Dynasty royal tombs
The faience
tiles
Abydos,
that cover complete walls in the 'blue
chambers' of the main tomb and the South
Tomb
precinct of Djoser are particularly beautiful.
meant
at
are used to imitate wall hangings of matting.
to represent a
palace of the
afterlife
at the
They were
made
of reed
matting and were fixed using a complicated system. In New Kingdom temples and palaces (for example at Amarna, Malqata, Medinet Habu, Merenptah, Qantir and Tell el-Yahudiya) wood and stone elements, such as Plan of the palace of Apries at
Memphis
door frames, columns, cavetto cornices and throne
.
Architrave
Bibliography: U. Hblscher, Gessodekorationen, Intarsien
pedestals, were decorated with brightly coloured inlays set into a cell-like series of recesses in the surface.
was occasionally
W.M.
New Kingdom
Flinders Petrie, Tell el
Amarna (London
Handbuch der Architektur
14 (Stuttgart 1897); Cecil
M.
Firth
IV, Figs.
in:
IAS 76
und Kachel-
(1940) 41-45; U. Hblscher,
51-54; Arnold, Bauschmuck,
in:
Helck,
LA
I
663-664.
temples. 1894)
9-10; Richard Borrmann, Die Keramik in der Baukunst,
Quibell,
Medinet Habu
a pattern of inlaid rectangles within the
decorative bands on bases in Bibliography:
bekleidungen in Medinet Habu,
There
21
and
in: J.E.
The Step Pyramid (Cairo 1935), Frontispiece, Plates 13-17,
38-45; William
C. Hayes,
Glazed
Tiles from
a Palace ofRamesses II at
Kantir (New York 1937); J.-Ph. Lauer, Restauration
Musee Egyptien d'un panneau orne de (1938) 551-565; Hblscher, Medinet
monumentale 76-82; Lucas,
AEMI
et transfer
faiences bleues,
Habu IV 38-46; 156-164;
F.D.
in:
ASAE
au 38
Lauer, Histoire
Friedman, Gifts of
the Nile, Exhibition Catalogue (Cleveland 1998) 180-181, 188-190,
194-197, Plates 72-73, 80, 86-88, 92-93. Also useful: Susan Tunick, Terracotta Skyline:
New
York's Architectural
Ornament (New York 1 997
)
Apotropaic snake and falcon decoration on the upper ramp of the Hatshepsut temple Reconstruction of a throne base of Ramesses
with faience
tiles (after
at Qantir,
II
Deir el-Bahari (after
at
L.F. Hall)
decorated
W.C. Hayes)
Architectural depictions Representations of buildings are numerous (as in hieroglyphs or standardised images), including true
Architectural decoration Decorations on
architectural depictions of sanctuaries
Egyptian cult buildings were not
and dwelling
intended as ornaments, their purpose being to indicate
houses found on the walls of temples and tombs
function (symbolism): niching in mastabas, papyrus
example
bundles, statue pillars, water spouts in the shape of lion
workmen's drawings with measurements found on
protomes, statue groups showing the king slaying his
papyri and ostraka. Following the principles of
Amarna and
at
on the High Gate of Medinet Habu, the
Egyptian
meandering snake's body on the balustrades of the
as gates,
ramps of the temple of Hatshepsut, the
appearing as
enemies
(?)
above the great temple of
Abu
heraldic plants
and walls
the
of Djoser
precinct
frieze of baboons
Simbel, friezes of uraei,
inlaid with green faience tiles in
(architectural ceramics),
cavetto cornices and torus mouldings on temples from the 3rd Dynasty onwards).
column
also frequently bear
The
different
forms of
,
art,
at
(for
Thebes), as well as
in
all
plans and elements of the side-view (such
columns and if
stairs) were
flattened out
combined,
all
and standing upright. The
resulting irregularities can often only be understood
the plan of the building concerned
is
if
known.
Bibliography: Heinrich Schafer, Von dgyptischer Kunst (Leipzig 1930)
128-139;
Badawy,
Dessin
architectural,
Architekturdarstellung, in: Helck,
Alexandre
Badawy,
LA I 399-420.
some meaning. Purely
structural decoration as such exists at best in the
metal
Architectural symbolism, see symbolism
overlays on doors and obelisks or in the cloisonne faience inlays
on doors and columns of palaces and
Architrave
temples of the Ramesside period. Fully or three-quarter
Architraves are used to join together groups of
engaged sculpture, similar
and
to the figures
on Greek temple
pediments, such as acroteria and so on, are
Egyptian architecture.
unknown
in
pillars,
and
to
are usually connected to
(cramps) or
to the
columns
support the roof of a building. They
each other using dowels
abacus of the column beneath by
Argo
22 tenons.
Where
there
was
change of direction, or where
a
met on top of
three architraves
had
interesting angles
a
single column,
be used. In order
to
his
companion
Rait-tawy, which faces south-east,
mentioning the
Africa, as well as
beams. Beams were also sometimes placed on
foundations were found to contain numerous re-used older blocks of stone. 82
order to reduce their weight, the architraves in the
lie
pyramids of Senwosret
Dahshur were hollowed As
and Amenemhat
III
The length of
out.
their loading tolerance,
depended on
III
at
architraves,
their material.
in structures with a flat roof (ceiling construction),
spanned by architraves was limited
the width of axes 7
killing of a rhinoceros.
Behind the pylon was the courtyard of the temple whose
top of each other, but this was structurally less sound. In
and
and
they contain a depiction of goods brought back from
of two
work, large architraves were sometimes parallel
to simplify
made
and
to
m and the space between the columns was restricted to
4-5 m. The sides and undersides of architraves were bands of texts.
often decorated with Bibliography: ]equkr, Architrav, in: Helck,
Manuel 277-287;
LA
I
420-422;
J.
Clark,
built in the reign of
a
m behind the front of the temple
some granite blocks from
new
the temple's core, which
Senwosret
building of the late Ptolemaic period with a
monumental
columns added by Hadrian. North-
hall of
west of the temple
a
lies
sacred lake, and the south-west
facing late Ptolemaic birth house, which
MI
Cleopatra
and her son Harpre. A
Karkowski, The Arrangement of
the Architraves in the Hatshepsut's Temple at Deir
el
Bahari,
in:
ET 13
halls,
was
later
height to 16.35
all
sides
extended to a length of 46
Bibliography: Description
1861-62 these buildings were
I,
sugar factory.
Plates 91-93; Sir Robert
Armant, Text and Plates (London 1940); L'Egypte
Armant,
in:
Geburtshaus von Armant, "
by pillared
m and raised in
m by the addition of two kiosks of pillars
for the construction of a
A. Eggebrecht,
to Rait-tawy
central building, including the
rising in steps at the front. In
removed
(1983) 139-153.
was decorated by
and Caesarion and dedicated
sanctuary, originally surrounded on
AEM 151-154; Arnold,
was
There was perhaps also
III.
in:
LA
I
Mond, Temples of 143-144;
restituee
Zum
435-441; Dieter Arnold,
Stationau Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte
Agyptens (Mainz 1998) 427-432.
h
Luxor.Amenhotep
Askut A large
ii-
(77 x 87
an island
m)
rocky terrain of the island walls are 5.3
Sheshonq
El-Hiba,
A
its
plan
at
to the
rather irregular.
is
The
m thick with bastions protruding like spurs. and storage
the harbour. Inside the fortress are the
commander's house, barracks and huge magazines.
i
)
Second Cataract. Due
vast gatehouse in front protects a temple
rooms
— ——
Kingdom on
fortress of the Middle
in the Nile at the
Bibliography: Badawy, Architecture
^
Hermopolis, Nectanebo
II
219-222; Alexander Badawy,
Archaeological problems relating to the Egyptian fortress at Askut, I
in:
S.T.
JARCE
5 (1966) 23-27; H. Guksch, Askut,
in:
LA
Helck,
Smith, Askut and the role of the Second Cataract Forts,
in:
I
473;
JARCE
28(1991)107-132.
Aswan, necropolis of Qubbet el-Hawa Edfu.
Opposite Aswan, on the
Ptolemy VIM
the rock Development of orientation of architraves
in pronaoi
tombs
hill
known
Upper Egypt. The most including the double 26), provided with
Armant
the river
An area of ruins at
Hermonthis, a short way to the south of
Thebes, containing the ruins of several cult buildings. Parts of a
pylon of Thutmosis
excavated. These are part of the
III,
47
m
wide, have been
main temple of Month-Re
Qubbet el-Hawa, are
nome
of
Kingdom monuments,
tomb of Sabni and Mehu (Nos
25,
monumental rock stairs leading up from
bank and obelisk-like stelae
Within the rock are two transverse
two rows of
first
interesting in terms of their archi-
tectural significance are the 17 Old
Argo, see Tabo
as
of the ruling class of the
pillars or three
at the entrance.
halls, partitioned
by
rows of columns lying across
the axis of the tomb. Stairs in the west wall lead to a chapel-like niche containing the
main
false door.
.
Aten precinct (Karnak) Among
the tombs of the
splendid complexes of Sarenput
I
12th Dynasty are the
Napoleonic Expedition. There are two particularly
and
important groups of tombs:
II
and Heqaib (Nos
30-32). These have stairways leading up to them from the Nile
and a courtyard cut
into the
portico at the rear. Inside the rock pillared cult
is
sandstone, with a
a pillared hall
and a
chamber, separated by a long corridor,
which, in the case of Sarenput
II,
with
mummiform
level
and the gradually reducing
in
are two groups of niches
statues cut in the wall.
The
a)
Nos 3-5, the tombs of the provincial up
their vast rock halls,
and
front
The tombs of
b)
temples, up
to
I
tombs of the nomarchs
New York 96 1
1
),
Plates
I
99-
III,
which are
m
more than 50
tombs
(
were divided into
the provincial rulers of the 12th
and
von Elephantine aus derZeit des Mittleren Reiches (Gliicksladt 1940);
Habachi,Assuan,in: Helck,L4
date, they
by rows of pillars.
rear sections
Dynasty, Hapdjefai
x 30 m. Like the tombs of
to 18
Beni Hasan of a similar
Bibliography: Hans-Wolfgang Miiller, Die Felsengrdber der Fursten
L.
rulers of the
Intermediate Period, which are distinguished by
First
rising floor
level of the ceiling reflect
the light into the statue niche of the cult chamber.
Egypt
23
Qaw
at
laid out like
in length.
rock
As with the
el-Kebir, these temple
consisted of a forecourt with a portico of columns
495-496; K. Langeand M.Hirmer,
or pillars, an antechamber (possibly with pillars), a
1
longitudinal hall 7
1
m high (perhaps corresponding to the
Per-weru), a rock chamber (without supports, 16.6 x 20.9
m
and
in size)
room
a
for
at least
funerary offerings
with three statue chapels. The elaborately twisting
complexes of chambers below remain almost completely unexplored, while these once lavishly decorated tombs
now almost
are
completely ruined. The valley temples
and causeways survive only
inscriptions. All that
in
remains of the Wepwawet temple of the ancient attested
from the
a few stone blocks of Akhenaten Bibliography: Description
and Ramesses
43-49,
IV, Plates
Vol. 4 (Paris
Gabra, Un temple d'Amenophis IV a Assiout,
S.
237-243; W.St. Smith,
Helck.IA
I
city,
Intermediate Period onwards, are
First
MDA IK
1
5
in:
II.
1822) 133ff.;
CdE 6
(1931)
957) 22 1 ff.; H. Beinlich, Assiut,
( 1
in:
489-495.
Aten precinct (Karnak) tomb of Sarenput
Plan and section of the
II,
necropolis of Qubbet
el-Hawa, Aswan (after H.-W. Miiller)
Aswan, temple An almost Ptolemy
the
which
lies
fringe of the present
with two
pillars,
to the east of the
buried in debris on the southern
complex, measuring
city. It
and three
Isis built
contains an offering
chamber
parallel sanctuaries.
A
small
temple of Domitian and Nerva, with a four-pillared,
pronaos, probably dedicated
to
Khnum, Satis and Anuket,
//
Monuments
divers, Plate 22;
tempio tolemaico di hi (Pisa 1978); H.
'Tempel des Domitian'
in
Assuan,
in:
Jaritz,
MDAIK 31
Edda
Bresciani,
Untersuchungen (
Amun 1
well as a residential palace
precinct.
30 x 200
(?)
zum
1975) 237-257.
Asyut
halls with 5
m
high statue pillars, which represented
the king as a type of primordial hermaphrodite creator
god. Inscriptions record the existence of other cult areas
and
also the
benben house,
the last of which stood
possibly further to the east at the centre of the court
unexcavated
(still
at
present).
of the largest and most important, yet least
Intermediate Period and the
Middle Egypt. The
The benben house pillars, 9.5
m
high,
depicting Queen Nefertiti below the rays of the Aten.
tombs of the Middle Kingdom in
adequately explored, necropoleis of rock First
court,
probably divided by cross-walls and surrounded by
probably contained a number of
One
The east-facing
m, consisted of a
dedicated to the Aten: Rudj-menu en Aten, Teni-menu
has disappeared completely under a rubbish dump. Bibliography: A. Mariette,
Gem-pa-Aten sanctuary as
by
completely preserved temple to
III,
Before the move to Amarna in year 6 of his reign, Amenhotep IV began work at the temple of Aten at Karnak. Using the new name of Akhenaten, he erected
first
and only time
examination was carried out
at the site
a structural
was by the
The
architectural context of this colonnade remains
unknown because the Aten precinct was demolished by Horemheb and his successors, in whose own buildings tens of thousands of re-used talatat blocks have been
found.
Aten, temples
24
Bibliography: D.B. Redford, Reconstructing the temples of a heretical
Pharaoh,
Archaeology 28 (1975) 16-22; Ray W. Smith and Donald
in:
Redford, The Akhenaten Temple Project
B.
I
(Warminster 1976),
II
1988); D.B. Redford, Report of the First Seasons of
(Toronto
Excavation in East Karnak, 1975-76,
in:
JARCE
silver).
some Roman
14 (1977) 9-32; D.B.
JARCE
in:
assemblage de
talatat:
Tell Atrib, in:
a Tell-Atrib,
81-119 (with further
J.-L.
in:
ASAE 57 in:
Dynasty,
KarnakWW
in:
1962) 49-77;
(
Etudes
Athribis, in: Helck,
Chappaz, Un nouvel
une paroi du rwd-mnw d'Aton,
LA
et
519-524;
I
B.
Ruscczyc, Le temple d'Amasis
Travaux 9 (1976) 117-127; L.
the Nile Delta
BIFAO 82 (1982) 213-235;
(Amsterdam 1988) 177-189;
at Tell Atrib in 1985, in:
Etudes
et
Vernus,
P.
Habachi, Athribis in the XXVIth
archaeological activities at Tell Atrib in 1985,
references).
in:
38 (1938) 523-532; K. Michalowski, Les fouilles polonaises a
on the
203-224; D.B. Redford, Akhenaten, The Heretic King (Princeton 1984)
86-136; L'Egypte restituee 121-124;
structures and components of other
Bibliography: A. Rowe, Short report on excavations... at Athribis,
ASAE
JSSEA 13(1983)
18 (1981) 11-41; D.B. Redford, Interim Report
Excavations of East-Karnak, 1981-1982 Seasons,
has disappeared, but
buildings.
Redford, Interim Report on the Excavations of East-Karnak, 1977-78, in:
A former brick pyramid
there are remnants of a temple of Amasis (area 20 x 50 m),
K. Myslewiec, Polish in:
The Archaeology of
K. Myslewiec, Excavations
Travaux 16 (1992) 383-391.
Aten, temples The temples
to the Aten, erected
(Aten precinct),
Amarna and
originally built of brick
and
by Akhenaten
without exception demolished II.
work ceased on
Horemheb
in the reigns of
Their shape, however, can be determined
on the evidence of foundation trenches, depictions
tombs
at
by
and the Aten temples were
the death of Akhenaten,
Ramesses
Karnak
later gradually replaced
stone structures (talatat). Construction
to
at
possibly Heliopolis, were
Amarna and
in the
the evidence of the talatat. While
Athribis (Wannina)
A
temple precinct of the lion goddess Triphis, to the
south of Sohag.
A
processional
way
leads to the remains
of a
monumental gateway of Ptolemy
the
meagre remains of the main temple,
Ptolemy VIII, are it.
Next to
built
II;
by
built
set against the slope of the hill
this stands the older
The birth house
VIII Euergetes
behind
granite temple of Apries.
by Ptolemy XII Auletes
across
lies
the axis of the precinct; the building, measuring 45 x 75
enclosure walls and pylons with flagpoles make them
m, with a pronaos containing two rows of six
seem externally similar to conventional temples, there are
remained well-preserved by the sand. The rear section
significant differences:
was possibly surrounded by
a)
The towers of
the pylons are separate buildings,
intended to be gateways of the sun, and are not joined by a
doorway
structure. to
the
sky,
like
courtyards; the centre of colonnaded courts was also
unroofed and there were gaps
On
the side of the
hill is
in the lintels. All of these
cult niche.
a
Graeco-Roman rock temple
There are some particularly interesting
columns with palm
sun's rays.
explorations at Athribis
rear parts of temples contained a
capitals along
its
to
rnit
Umgang;
(Hwt
R. el-Farag et
Rpjj.t), in:
half-
facade.
Bibliography: William Flinders Petrie, Athribis (London Borchardt, Tempel
The
may
it
have stood in the middle of an open colonnaded court.
were intended to prevent interruption to the path of the
c)
a pillared hall or
has
Asklepios with a forecourt, two rock-cut chambers and a
rooms stand open
Interior
b)
pillars,
al.,
1908);
Recent archaeological
MDAlKAl
(1985) 1-8.
hypaetral
sanctuary, surrounded by chapels, with an accessible
monumental were
filled
d)
The
altar in the centre.
with numerous smaller
front courtyards
altars.
The decorative programme was completely
restructured as a result of the theological changes of the period. Bibliography:
Badawy, Architecture
Atonheiligtiimer,
Athribis
(Tel
in:
I-
Helck,
LA
I
II
200-214;
).
Assmann,
541-549.
At rib)
An important kom (mound
of fuins; 700 x 900
m)
in the
southern corner of the Delta, with the sanctuary of Khentekhtai. Streets dating from
Roman
times inter-
sect each other at a central crossing point.
occupied by
many
individual
their place of origin
The
site is
monuments, removed from
(naoi, sculptures, collections of
Temple precinct of Triphis
at Athribis,
dating from the Ptolemaic period
Ayuala
25
I
groove for beam
Cramp
slots in the cornice
blocks and grooves for
courses of the kiosk of Augustus
Kiosk of Augustus
Bibliography: Description
at Philae
Umgang 13-14, sheets
I,
at
beams
in the
upper
Philae
Plates 26-28; Borchardt,
Tempel mit
5-6.
Augustus, kiosk of (Philae) The
largest free-standing
15.4 x 20.7
kiosk
in
Egypt (ground area
m, height 15.45 m) with four by
Avenue of sphinxes, see sphinxes, avenue of
five
span of more than 10 m, the kiosk was provided with a
Ayuala Some blocks from a the Roman Imperial
roof consisting of two thin skins of timber. The building
Ayuala (Lower Nubia) to Elephantine. The
served as a barque station for
temple to which they belonged has never been found.
composite columns with unfinished tympana (possibly to
be decorated with
Philae.
sistra or
Bes figures). Due to
Isis
its
wide
and the gods of
The kiosk was probably built under Augustus, but
the decoration,
unfinished.
begun
in the reign of Trajan,
remained
Bibliography: H. Jaritz
temple gateway, dating to early in age,
and
einem Mandulisheiligtum (1990)157-184.
E.
were transported
in 1911 site
from
of the
Laskowska-Kusztal, Das Eingangstor zu
in Ajuala/Unternubien, in:
MDAIK
46
B Baefba (Babaef, Khnumbaef), tomb of
Bibliography:
One
tombeau du Bocchoris,
of the most important and best-preserved mastabas
in the
western cemetery
Giza (G 5230), 12.78 x 41.25
at
in size, dating to the reign of Shepseskaf.
In front,
serdab
on the eastern
LD
Bibliography:
in:
D.
stone.
courtyard with two
24; Junker, Giza VII
I
Arnold, Old
Kingdom
151-155; Reisner, Giza
I
statues in their architectural setting,
Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids, exhibition catalogue
York 1999) 47,
(
New
km
La Tomba
west of the Nile valley which, on the
The
many remains
oasis contains
of
setdements and ruins of smallish temples dating from the
Roman
Edda
di Bakenrenef (L.24) (Pisa 1988).
Kingdom
settlement and necropolis of the Old
Balat and, alongside
(at
Ain Asil)
is
3
town. The rectangular area (measuring
it
in the south.
The necropolis and contains four late
in
km east of
Elephantine and Hierakonpolis,
represents the best-preserved ruin of an Old
is
1
Kingdom
m)
10 x 230
is
a fortress-like structure
There are important remains
of houses, ceramic workshops
evidence of rock drawings, was inhabited from prehistoric times.
IV.
Balat
A
adjacent to
oasis 180
Saqqara
Egitto e Vicino Oriental (1978) 41-56;
enclosed by a wall and there
Fig. 25.
Bahariya Oasis
An
a\.,
in:
Dakhla Oasis. The settlement
houses.
(Fig.)
248-250;
side, is a
Bresciani et
Etude preliminaire du plan du
40; S. El-Naggar,
I
The core and
monumental blocks of
outer casing are built of
m
LD
and so
(Qila el-Dabba)
large brick
is
on.
2
km
to the
mastabas belonging
west
to the
6th Dynasty rulers of the oasis. They consist of a
surrounding a courtyard and a
large brick enclosure
period, which are under
mastaba with a niched facade. Inside the mastabas are
examination: Ain el-Muftella, El-Ayun, El-Bawiti (temple
multiple shrines. The burial chambers have barrel vaults
of Amasis), El-Qasr (temple of Apries), Qasr el-Megysbeh
of brick.
26th Dynasty up to the
(temple of Alexander the Great). The important rock
Bibliography: Settlement: excavation reports by L.L. Giddy in
tombs
79 (1979) 21-39; 80 (1980) 257-269; 81 (1981) 189-205,93 (1993)
of the 26th Dynasty necropolis at El-Bawati are
richly decorated; their central
columns. In 1996,
at
rooms have rock
the southern
pillars
end of the
and
oasis, a
BIFAO
391-402; 97 (1997) 19-34. Necropolis: excavation reports by A. Minault-Gout, G. Castel and M. Valloggia in
BIFAO 78 (1978)
Ptolemaic-Roman cemetery was found containing several
35-80, 80 (1980) 271-286; 93 (1993) 391-402; 95 (1995) 297-328;
communal tombs with
Michel Valloggia, Balat.
a great
number of mummies, some
buried in well-preserved gilded coffins. Bibliography:
Ahmed
Anne Minault-Gout,
Fakhry, Bahria and Farafra Oasis,
in:
ASAE
(1938) 397-434; 39 (1939) 627-642; 40 (1941) 823-836; Fakhry, Bahria Oasis, 2 Vols (Cairo 1942, 1950);
of Egypt.
II.
Ahmed
38
Ahmed
Mummies (New York
Le mastaba de Medou-nefer (Cairo 1986); Le mastaba d'Ima-Pepi (Cairo 1992);
II.
M. Zimmermann, Bemerkungen zu den Befestigungen des Alien Reiches in Ayn Asil und in Elephantine,
in:
MDAIK54 (1998) 341-359.
Fakhry, Oases
Bahriyah and Farafra Oases (Cairo 1974); Zahi Hawass,
Valley of the Golden
I.
Balat.
Baldachin, see canopy
2000).
Ballas (Deir el-Ballas)
Bakenrenef, tomb of Monumental rock tomb of one I
in the eastern desert
entrance level eight pillars
is
cult
royal settlement with
two palaces of the
of the viziers of Psamtek
early 18th
Dynasty on the West Bank of the Nile between
Saqqara. On the
Qena and
Luxor. Standing inside a 156 x 303
escarpment
a hall with
and a
The remains of a
at
foufcolumns, a deep
hall
with
complex, similar to an Osiris
tomb, completely surrounded by
and forming the nucleus of
that settlement
m enclosure is
the North
Palace with a central residential tower, built on several
surrounded by pillared halls. The South Palace
a corridor. The burial accommodation occupies two subterranean levels. This and the tomb of Tjary at Giza are good examples of rock
storeys,
tombs of the Late Period
lower level facing the valley, from where a wide brick
in
Lower Egypt.
(measuring 45 x 100 m)
is
outside the enclosure to the
south on a desert elevation.
It
has a pillared court at a
,
Basalt
stairway (stairs) led up to the actual living quarters,
A
lost.
now
few fragments of figured wall paintings have
survived.
Numerous domestic
are located
structures of the period
between the two palaces.
Bibliography: W. Stevenson Smith, The Art
LA
in:
1025-1027; Peter Lacovara, The Hearst excavations
I
Deir el-Ballas: the eighteenth dynasty town,
Dows Dunham (Boston
at
Essays in Honor of
in:
Peter Lacovara, Deir el-Ballas.
1981);
Preliminary Report on the Deir el-Ballas Expedition, 1980-1986
(Winona Lake, Indiana
Kingdom
1990); Peter Lacovara, Deir el-Ballas
House and Palace 139-147;
royal cities, in:
New Kingdom Royal City (New York
P.
and New
Lacovara, The
during processions
either inside or outside the temple enclosure walls. In
theory,
and Architecture of Ancient
Egypt (London 1958) 156-159; A. Eggebrecht, Deir el-Ballas, Helck,
Barque station, way station A resting place for the god's barque
27
sufficed to
it
be a canopy or
tent-like shelter, but
these structures were usually enlarged into a small stone
kiosk. The
barque
is
way
first
station
on the route of the divine
usually the hypostyle hall of the temple, which
was hence known
as the hall of appearances (of the cult
image). The raised central nave in particular could serve as a
columned kiosk
set
within a hall composed of halls
of lower columns (examples: the hypostyle hall at
Karnak and
the West Hall of the
Ptah temple
at
Memphis).
1997) 81-87.
The second barque
station often takes the
form of a
Balustrade
kiosk within the courtyard of the temple. In contrast
Stone walls flanking stairways, ramps and high altars,
the barque station in the hall of appearances, these
also
A
found as inter-columnar screens
balustrade
at
in pillared chapels.
the temple of Hatshepsut
shape of a serpent crowned with a falcon
is
in
the
combination
(a
of Wadjet and Horus). Balustrades occur particularly frequently in buildings of the
decorated in Bibliography:
Aten
at
Amarna
period, profusely
I.
Shaw, Balustrades, stairs and altars
El-Amarna,
in:
subsequent barque stations were, according to Egyptian
in the cult
of the
JEA 80 (1994) 109-127. For Hatshepsut, see
H.E. Winlock, Excavations at Deir
el
The next
the inter-columnar spaces were filled with walls.
barque station
again a kiosk, which, particularly in the
is
Ethiopian period, was erected in front of the pylon with rear wall leaning against the pylon's facade (hayit).
The outer columns are
by half-height
either joined
screens with passageways only on the axes, as for
example
Bahari (New York 1942) 220.
environment and hence
beliefs, set in a potentially hostile
its
relief.
to
at
the Hibis temple (El-Kharga), or they consist
of parallel rows of columns, open at the front and sides to
Barque chamber An elongated rectangular front of the
shown
form no more than shrine,
room
naos on the processional
or hall, lying in
axis of a temple.
As
programme of depictions of the divine barque, the chamber usually contained a stone base on which the barque was placed. For unknown reasons, the barque chamber was sometimes divided in two. It
It
in the decorative
usually
was
opened
originally a
was recreated
directly into the offering
wooden
chamber.
structure (canopy), which
temples and, unlike the
in stone in larger
shady roof
a
Further barque stations were built
from the temple, Philae). These
for
more
at greater distances
example on a
river
and
set
into the building
down on
up a ramp
Edfu and
at
I
at
Abydos,
at
Dendera). In Ptolemaic temples, barque chambers were free-standing, surrounded by a
U-shaped
corridor.
Larger temples have more than one barque chamber. Bibliography: D. Arnold, Barkenraum,
Mahmud Abd
und
barque processions of the
Bibliography: Borchardt, Tempel mit
Le temple reposoir de Ramses Ricke,
III
Umgang56-\05; Henri
a
Karnak (Cairo
Stationsheiligtum,
in: in:
ZAS Helck,
LA V 1258-1260;
Le logement
of Ancient Egypt (Ithaca 1997) 157-178.
transport des barques sacrees et des statues des dieux
Cauville,
in:
BIFAO
BIFAO 93 (1993) 79-172.
the example of Luxor,
L. Bell,
The New
in: Shafer, Ed.,
Temples
13 (1917) 1-76; Sylvie
Edfou (Cairo 1984) 32-39; Sylvie Cauville, Dendera (Cairo
1990) 44-47; Sylvie Cauville, La chapelle de
III, in:
to the
102 (1975) 79-90; R. Stadelmann,
Kingdom 'divine' temple:
dans quelques temples egyptiens,
Chevrier,
1933); Herbert
Das Kamutef-Heiligtum Hatschepsuts und Thutmoses'
Alexanders des Grofien im Tempel von Luxor (Mainz 1984); G. Legrain, et
probably the
is
Karnak (Cairo 1954) 18-41; A.M. Badawy, The approach Egyptian temple,
I
role
New Kingdom. The most
Maru temple.
625-626;
LA
the front
Barque stations had a particularly important
pillars.
Texte des Sanktuares
Helck,
in:
El-Raziq, Die Darstellungen
at
a platform in a shrine surrounded by
elaborate form of the barque station
Luxor, in the temple of Sety
(as at
took the form of ambulatory temples. The barque
would be borne
example the Chapelle Rouge, the barque chambers of at
bank
distant barque stations frequently
in the
Karnak, of Alexander the Great
Karnak
and Luxor.
monolithic naos, was constructed out of masonry (for
Philip Arrhidaeus at
There
for cult activities.
are several examples of these entrance porches at
la
barque
a
Dendera,
in:
Basalt
A very hard blackish brown volcanic rock, used in Egyptian architecture, especially during the Old
Kingdom.
Its
28
Base
specific gravity in
paving
is
in the
2.9-3.0.
It
was used almost
pyramid temples
exclusively
of Khufu, Sahure,
Niuserre (see also orthostats) and Userkaf, and temple of Tanis.
It
was occasionally used
and naoi. An ancient mine
at
is
in the
for sarcophagi
Gebel el-Qatrani in
Kingdom onwards bathrooms have been shown and
existed in houses floor
and (not always) a drain
cesspit,
have
to
They often have a stone
palaces.
to the outside or to a
with walls clad in stone to half their height. They
were usually separated from the
toilet
by a screen wall.
Baths {per-duat) in the shape of rectangular basins with
the Faiyum. Bibliography: Nicholson, Materials 23-24;
De
Putter, Pierres 51-54;
a drain to a cesspit allowed priests to cleanse themselves
before entering the
Klemm.Sfeine 413-422.
rooms of
a temple.
Numerous bath
complexes of a Graeco-Roman type, fed by water
Base, see also
column base, plinth
The bases of columns and
pillars are circular, often in
the shape of a cushion, or else vertical side-edges
Obelisks stand on
flat
with bevelled or
and with bevelled upper edges. rectangular granite bases.
tall
lifting
devices and tanks, have survived in the ruins of towns or are attested to in texts (such as at Abu
Mena, Alexandria,
towns of the Faiyum, and Hermopolis). Bibliography: Lauer, Step Pyramid, Plate 25; A.
and Roman Baths of Kom
el
Ahmar,
in:
ASAE
el
Khashab, Ptolemaic
10 Suppl. (Cairo 1949);
Colossal statues also sometimes sat on a separately
Ricke, Wohnhauser, Figs 7, 9, 11, 28; W. Decker, Bad, in: Helck,
worked base. The bases of statue pillars are usually part
598-599; G. Castel, Un grand bain gre'co-romain a Karanis,
of the whole structure.
76 (1976) 231-275; Arnold, The Pyramid of Senwosret S.
Bath
Badeanlagen
The existence of baths attested to
Ziegler, Einige
in the
Old Kingdom
is
as early as the
tomb of Ruaben been found
at
2nd Dynasty
Saqqara). Several
(for
in
example the
cult baths
have
in the so-called 'palace' in the precinct of
Djoser. From the Middle Kingdom, the bath becomes a regular feature in larger houses, while from the
in:
GM 132
(
I
51, Fig. 16;
Bemerkungen zur Wasserversorgung
Agypten,
LA
BIFAO
antiker
1993) 75-84.
only
from inscriptions, but there are model baths
tombs from
in
I
in:
New
Batter The outer
walls of Egyptian stone
and mud brick
structures are sloped, pardy to provide balance, partly to relate
back
to earlier
methods of building and pardy
monumental nature of
increase the
most noticeable
in
structures. This
mastaba and pyramid
to is
construction.
batter in masonry structures is usually 82°, in queens' and secondary pyramids most often 63° and in the case
The
of the pyramids of the kings of the Old
Kingdom between
52 and 54°, which decreased gradually during the Middle
Kingdom
to
between 49 and
52°.
The angle
is
defined by
the relationship of the horizontal offset to the vertical
height per cubit {seqed). This
was probably transferred
onto the wall blocks by means of a
wooden
template.
Checking was done by sighting along angled slopes on brick walls temporarily erected at the corners of the
building concerned, such as at Bibliography:
L.
Meidum mastaba
Borchardt, Wie wurden die
17.
Boschungen der
Pyramiden bestimmt? ZAS 31 (1893) 9-17; W.M. Flinders
Medum (London
1892) 12, Plate
8; J.-P.
Petrie,
Lauer, Observations sur
les
pyramides (Cairo 1960) 93-97.
Battlements From
ancient Egyptian depictions, the top edge of the
walls of
temples and fortresses took the form of
batdements from the Middle Kingdom (similarly with Canaanite fortresses). The remains of batdements have survived Egyptian baths. A: priestly bath in the pyramid temple of Senwosret El-Lisht; B: toilet 'palace' of the
and bath
in a
house
at
Djoser precinct at Saqqara
Amarna;
I
at
C: priestly bath in the
at
Nubian
fortresses
(such as Dorginarti).
The High Gate of Medinet Habu has decorative rounded stone battlements; the remains of semi-circular limestone batdements, decorated on the
front,
have been
Beit Khallaf
found on the temple of Onias
houses and depictions of
at Tell
private
el-Yahudiya.
Model
houses occasionally
show the roof with an undulating edge, while grain
The sanctuary contained three rock-cut possibly of Amun, Ramesses
cult
29 images,
and Ptah. The delicacy of
II
the reliefs, as well as the unusual plan of Beit el-Wali,
stores had corners which curved upwards, reminiscent
differentiate this structure
of battlements.
king further south. The temple has been moved to the Hyksos and
Bibliography:
W.M. Flinders
(London 1906)
26, Plate 26; Holscher, Mortuary Temple,\'o\. 2, 33 Figs
Petrie,
Israelite
38-39,Plates 19-20.; Badawy, Dessi'n architectural 143-158; Serra East and Dorginarti,
in:
Kush 14 (1966),
J.
Cities
Knudstad,
new
site
from the
temples of this
of the temple of Kalabsha near Aswan.
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates Histoire, Plate 42; Giinther Roeder,
The Bet el-Wali Temple of Ramesses el-Wali, in: Helck,
LA 1 686-687;
12-16; Prisse d'Avennes,
Der Felsentempel von Bet el-Wali
Hughes und Edward
(Cairo 1938); Herbert Ricke, George R.
Plate 24a.
later
II
(Chicago 1967);
F.
Wente,
E. Otto, Beit
Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 6-9.
Beit Khallaf Five
monumental mud brick mastabas
of the 3rd
Dynasty, north of Abydos. Like other step mastabas of the period, the core of the colossal mastaba, Kl, of the
m, height 8 + x m,
reign of Djoser, area 45 x 85
constructed of sloping mantles;
above the substructure, which Battlements on top of the High Gate of Ramesses
III at
Medinet Habu
ramp
it
may
may have been
leads from the east to the roof, which
vaulted.
From here
burial chambers.
niched.
A
was probably
a steep entrance stairway, sealed by
blocking stones weighing tonnes, leads
Behbeit el-Hagar, see Iseum
is
have protruded
The vaulted
down
to the
ceiling over the stairs
is
constructed of descending barrel vaults leaning against
mud
Beit el-Wali
A
small rock temple near Kalabsha, 50
km
south of
Aswan, dating from the early years of the reign of
Ramesses the king, a pylon.
was it
II
and dedicated
to
m
room
dwelling
known
vaults in Egypt. The
are arranged after the
house
or palace,
manner of a
and they were
_
because the rock lacked height,
was given a brick-built barrel vault, 6
7-8
chambers
Amun-Re, Re-Horakhty,
Khnum, and Anuket. The temple was fronted by An entrance hall, corresponding to a courtyard,
set into the rock but,
brick arches, the oldest
burial
m
wide and
high, probably constructed of layers of rings
supported against the rock wall behind. Behind lay an offering table
room with two
squat, polygonal pillars.
w^w
\ 20
HKH
-/'---a D=i-> Plan of the rock temple of Beit el-Wali, from the time of Ramesses
II
Plan and view of 3rd Dynasty mastaba
1
at Beit
Khallaf
multi-
filled
with
Benben stone
30
huge numbers of clay and stone
been attributed
to
vessels.
Although Kl has
Horus Netjerykhet (King Djoser), and
the smaller mastaba, K2, to Horus Zanakht, likely that
P.
seems more
Kaplony, Beit Challaf,
Mahdsna and Bet Khalldf (London Helck,
in:
LA
I
A
pillar-like
monument, having an
shape, related to the cult of the sun. it
irregular conical
The
was
original
later also
benben
found
at
Karnak and Amarna. It developmental forerunner of the obelisk. No
other sun cult locations such as the
An
early group,
two main groups:
which comprises
sue
tombs with
in:
Hans Bonnet, Reallexikon der 1952)
dgyptischen Religionsgeschichte (Berlin
Benben und Benben-Haus,
in:
Helck,
mythological and linguistic notes,
in:
11th Dynasty.
and tomb No. 18 are
(No. 17)
Behind
The tombs of Baket
four rows of
hall,
with
and the
(No. 15), Khety
architecturally interesting.
a plain facade lies a cult
deep rectangular
III
its
chamber, shaped
like a
rear section separated by
columns standing across the
axis, giving the
impression of the facade of a house in the middle of a
benben stone has been found. Bibliography: H. Kees, Benben,
south of
class of the 16th
inscriptions from the First Intermediate Period
stone stood at Heliopolis, and
is
km
on the East Bank of
tombs of the ruling
architectural features. There are
a)
Benben stone
cliffs
Upper Egyptian Province, with important wall paintings
and
686.
of rock tombs, 23
Minya. Into the steep limestone the Nile were cut 39
both were private tombs of the period.
Bibliography: John Garstang, 1903);
it
Beni Hasan A famous necropolis
LA
I
100-101;
694-695;
J.
E.
Otto,
Baines, Bnbn:
Orientalia 39 (1970) 389-404.
subterranean court.
A
b)
later group,
belonging to the 12th Dynasty,
predominantly the tombs of the nomarchs (No. 2)
and Khnumhotep
III
(No. 3).
——
transverse section
transverse section E-F
Plans and sections of the tombs of the nomarchs, No. 17 (Khety) and No. 2
(Amenemhat)
at
Beni Hasan
C-D
Amenemhat
The motif of the
Bent Pyramid
31
taken over from residential buildings and translated into stone. Bibliography: Percy E. Newberry, Beni Hasan, 4 Vols (London
1893-1900);
Junge, Beni Hassan, in: Helck,
F.
W. Schenkel, Chnumhotep
I.
-IV, in: Helck,
LA
I
LA
I
695-698;
954-956; Abdel
Ghaffar Shedid, Die Felsgrdber von Beni Hassan (Mainz 1994).
Bent Pyramid The southern, stone pyramid 'Appearance of Sneferu', was the
pyramid.
Its
Dahshur, named
at
planned as a true
first
construction, which began around the
12- 13th year of Sneferu's reign, has a tangled
was planned View
into the cult
chamber of the tomb of Khety, No.
1
7 at Beni
Hasan
to
an angle of slope around 58-60° and
Damage caused house facade has been moved from inside the exterior in the
form of
a portico, with
hill to
the
two octagonal or
channelled pillars (protodoric columns). The deep rectangular cult interior of a
chamber
is
intended to suggest the
house with a columned
hall.
The
formed of three lengthways barrel vaults cut in the direction of the axis
ceiling
is
into the rock
and supported on four
the addition of a 15.75
at a
a height of 137.5
m)
height of 49
the overall height
while,
m
due
had
to
to internal
be reduced
was lowered
The Bent Pyramid
is
to
to 54°31'13"
provided with two complexes of
chambers, accessible from the north and the west, which
the start.
lotus
columns
in
Nos
17
and 18
closed-
are an important feature
and
104-5 m.
were separately constructed, being planned
The
new base
damage, the slope
the centre of the rear wall
a statue niche.
m.
m deep stone coating around the
channelled columns decorated with carpet patterns. At is
It
in the course of construction necessitated
lower section of the pyramid (resulting in a length of 187
history.
have an original base length of 157.5 m,
They were
later joined
by
a
this
way from
roughly cut
connecting passage. The northern complex consists of an
Plan and section of the interior chambers of the Bent Pyramid of Snefru at Dahshur, showing construction phases
A-C
Biahmu
32
antechamber with a corbelled vault connecting
main chamber vault 17.5
m
m
6.5
high. In
southern wall
its
to a
chamber with
damage during
construction,
beams 26
a chimney-like
its
m
high.
walls
of cedar wood.
Due
to
to
be
had
Tomb
at
name
of
Sneferu stand on the north side of the secondary pyramid. In front of the east side of the Bent
area
(pyramid temple,
inscribed stelae, 9
and the
Fig.)
Pyramid there
is
a
flanked by two
m high. Halfway between the pyramid
cultivation, at the
temple, 26.2 x 47.2
in
bottom of the causeway,
m, with
is
six chapels for statues.
valley temple could have existed further to the east.
Reconstruction of the statue temple of Amenemhat
III at
Biahmu
a
A
ASAE
at
52 (1952) 595-601; H. Ricke, Baugeschichtlicher
Dahschur,
ASAE
52 (1952), 603-623;
Ahmed
Fakhry, The
at Dahshur, 3 Vols (Cairo 1959-61);
MRA
98-101; R. Stadelmann, Pyramiden 87-100; R, Stadelmann,
MDAIK
The secondary
stelae bearing the
in:
Monuments of Sneferu
m high, may have been erected
Two
ASAE 5
Vorbericht iiber die Kultanlagen der sudlichen Pyramide des Snofru
the western
chamber, reminiscent of the South
the precinct of Djoser.
cult
Dahshur,
m up, a steep corridor leads straight
to the south,
to include a
is
From
a corbelled vault 16.5
its
reinforced with 16
pyramid
Fig.).
in:
(1951) 509-522; H.Mustapha, The surveying of the Bent Pyramid
higher up, which has a corbelled
canopic recess (corbelled vault, entrance, situated 33
Bibliography: A. Fakhry, The southern pyramid of Snefru,
to the
47 (1991) 380-381;
Knickpyramide,
in:
J.
Dorner,
MDAIK 42 (1986)
III
in:
Form und Ausmafie der
81-92.
Biahmu A
double sanctuary of
Amenemhat
Medinet el-Faiyum, with two a sloping stone wall (area 34
m
7
km
north of
surrounded by
x 39 m). In each court was a
quartzite seated statue of the king, 6.4
III,
cult courts
1 1
m high, set on
a
high base. The sanctuary appears to have been
erected on a
dam
created by
Amenemhat
III
on the bank
of the former Lake Faiyum. The statues did not merely
Bosses commemorate
the agricultural development of the
Faiyum; they were living images of the king and
which Amenemhat
pients of a cult in
worshipped as a creator and
fertility
Bibliography: Herodotos, History
god.
149; W.
II
monument
of Biahmu,
Biahmu,
Helck,
Birket
LA
I
ASAE
in:
M. Flinders
Petrie,
Habachi, The
L.
40 (1941) 721-739; A. Eggebrecht,
782-783.
Habu
The harbour basin and 'pleasure
Amenhotep
Ill's
creation of the
1
palace x 2.4
produced
to the Nile
which was piled
in a
D.
and
Univ.
O'Connor,
Journ. of Nautical Arch,
Mus. excavations
III, in:
An
opening
its
m of excavated earth,
double chain of hills along
Amenhotep
palace and harbor of
Kemp and
artificial lake
million cu
The
front of
in
lake'
Malqata (Thebes). The
city of
km
1 1
Bibliography: D. O'Connor,
30; B.
reci-
probably was
III
Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinoe (London 1889);
in:
33
Newsletter
at
Malkata.
ARCE
ancient Nile harbour,
inuiii
wmuu Armant
banks.
its
A
Dendera
II
Examples of plans of temple birth houses
83 (1972) in: Intern.
and Underwater Exploration
Block connection, see cramps
(1974)
3
101-136.
Bosses Bossed stones are blocks whose surface has been
Birth
A
house
completely or partly unfinished. This feature
birth house (Coptic,
mammisi, Eg. per-meset) usually
rooms and
consists of a sanctuary with several
(ambulatory temple);
corridor around the four sides
the
spaces
between the
a pillared
are
pillars
protected
is
left
not a
decorative element in Egyptian architecture, but
is
instead an indication that the smoothing process has not
been completed. Stone buildings
in
Egypt were erected
by
intercolumnar walls (screen wall). The roof is supported
on
floral
columns. Mammisi stand inside a surrounding
temple enclosure wall, usually
at right
angles to the
processional avenue which leads to the
main temple.
Birth houses started as stations entered
the mysteries attendant
Mammisi
way
stations or processional
by the procession of gods performing
on the birth of the divine
child.
are also dedicated to the king in his youth, his
birth being celebrated as a kind of renewal of the reign.
The origin of
this
type of building probably
pre-
lies in
historic structures, consisting of a protective roof of
timber and mats used houses'.
times over 'summer
in early
Mammisi became
particularly prominent in,
Egyptian architecture from the Late Period until times. Precursors in the
Ramesside period and
Roman earlier
phases are suggested by the decorative programmes of older temples, showing the divine marriage, birth
suckling of the young god. Examples exist at Philae,
Ombo, Edfu, El-Kab, Armant, (Karnak),
Dendera and
the
Mut
and
Kom
precinct
Athribis.
Bibliography: A. Badawy, The architectural symbolism of the
mammisi-chapels
in Egypt, in:
CdE 38 (1933) 78-90; Ludwig
Borchardt, Agyptische Tempel mit Francois Daumas,Ie5
mammisis
Francois Daumas, Geburtshaus,
Umgang
(Cairo 1938) 3-12;
des temples egyptiens (Paris 1958);
in:
Helck,
LA
II
462-475.
Bossed masonry at
Karnak
at the first
pylon and the barque station of Sety
II
Brick
34
using blocks transported in bossed condition and only
Fired bricks are rare in pharaonic architecture (brick
end of construction by being worked on
construction). Bricks are usually laid on a base of Nile
finished at the
example the granite dressing on the
step by step (for
pyramid of Menkaure, the 'ring bands' on the pyramid
Meidum, columns
in the first courtyard of
mud or dry sand. The
Karnak,
Lehmziegelwerkstatt aus
cavetto cornices and torus mouldings, winged sun of
discs, the capitals
occurring close Less
some columns
The method
el-Shelwit).
common
to,
is
in,
is,
form of edge
the blocks already have a
surface but with
dem
J.
Alten Reich in Abusir,
Krejci, Eine in:
GM
148
in:
la
dimension des briques de construction,
J.Vercoutter.M/r^sa /(Paris 1970) 102-114.
thickened edges. Graeco-Roman
known
Brick bonding, see brick construction
smoothed
buildings constructed in the Egyptian style adopted
the concept of rough surfaces
uncommon.
an inside corner.
are the examples of a simple
protection: that
techno-chronologique sur
the cause of the joints
but not directly
is
(1995) 63-69; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials 78-88; A. Hesse, Essai
Philae, Deir
at
use of mortar
Bibliography: Spencer, Brick Architecture 140-141;
at
in Hellenistic
architecture as a decorative element, for instance at the
Brick construction Building in brick developed in pre-historic times in
Egypt (Badarian/Amratian) from using
mud
{pisse) for
simple constructions.
south temple of Karanis. Other bosses, serving as points for fitting ropes
and levers, were used
for lifting
and
1.
Development
From Naqada
transporting. Bibliography: Boak, Karanis
II,
Plates 26-27, 29; Jaritz, Terrassen,
I
onwards, air-dried bricks were the
construction material of Egypt. They were forced out of
Plates 2-3, 27, 38; Arnold, Building 132-141; Zivie, Deir Chelouit,
use in sacred architecture by stone construction from
Plates 48-50.
the 3rd Dynasty
and almost completely from the 12th
Dynasty. Fired bricks were rarely used (street paving
Kahun and
Brick Egyptian bricks consist of a mixture of brown- or
in the 12th
at
Dynasty fortresses of Buhen and
Shalfak; a 5 x 30 x 30
cm
format was used in floors).
and fragments of brick (adobe). Occasionally yellowish
became more frequent from the 21st Dynasty, but were not commonly used until the second
bricks are found with a strong admixture of clay (tafl).
half of the 1st century BC. Brick walls were protected
blackish-grey Nile
mud, sand,
plant fibres or small stones
Bricks were struck using a box-shaped (originals have survived), left to
dry in the
walls, there
air.
wooden mould
marked with brick marks and
In addition to the
normal bricks
for
were also special moulded bricks (bricks,
moulded). The
specific gravity of bricks
is
estimated to
be 1250-1650 kg/cu m, the average brick weighing 5 kg.
Brick making, as depicted in the
tomb of Rekhmire
Fired bricks
against the weather by an application of
painted white. Starting in the
some
walls
was packed
1st
mud plaster and
Dynasty the
at regular intervals
interior of
(every 4-6
courses or groups of courses) with reed matting, for
example
in the
Illahun, the
enclosure wall of Senwosret
II
at
Nubian fortresses of the 12th Dynasty,
Brick construction
the temple of Sety
at
I
Abydos and
Montuemhat. This was intended
tomb
35
of
considerable size play an important part in non-sacred
to prevent the bricks
and tomb structures (ceiling construction, grain
from cracking during drying and
at
the
laying. In order to
prevent cracks being produced during settling, individual
stores). Intricate constructional decoration required
moulded
bricks
to the appropriate size
and shape.
structural elements (building blocks) were separated by isolation joints.
3.
Monumental brick 1st
Dynasty onwards,
Hierakonpolis,
mastabas Intricate
Egyptian forms of brick bonding are limited to a few
form of palaces, divine
combinations: for the fronts of walls regularly alternating
Abydos,
courses of 'headers' and 'stretchers' are dominant. The
in the
and funerary enclosures
fortresses
at
Techniques
architecture flourished from the
Memphis and
at
in the Delta, as well as
Naqada, Abydos, Beit Khallaf and Saqqara.
niching and surface articulation became one of
interior of the wall always consisted of headers.
thickness
of
walls
was
reduced
by
'herringbone' bonding inside the wall.
The
use
of
The bases of walls
the hallmarks of Early Dynastic architecture, differing
often rested on a course of brick-on-edge.
markedly from the unarticulated wall surfaces of
Dynasty onwards horizontal courses
later
the
From
the 13th
in the walls
of
buildings. Vast brick-built fortresses appeared from
dwelling houses undulated (wavy walls), probably in
the 1st Dynasty onwards in Egypt and Nubia,
most
order to prevent the corners of
Kingdom. Starting
in the
particularly during the Middle
reign of Senwosret
the core of
II,
pyramids was
built
of bricks.
Some temples were converted
structures,
from the Middle Kingdom onwards, but with
brick temples continuing alongside
into stone
them (pylons,
tall
buildings from
breaking away. This technique became more frequent after
the
New Kingdom and predominated
construction
of
(Karanis, Dima). in
houses
the
in
Many temple
Ptolemaic
in
the
period
enclosure walls erected
subsequent periods were constructed using the same
enclosures and secondary complexes such as magazines).
method. Occasional examples are found of combined
Enclosures, especially in the Late Period, were vast, with
stone and brick masonry, such as corners of brick
walls
up
to 30
m thick and the side length of surrounding
walls exceeding
2.
600 m.
Forms
In order to provide stability, brick walls are often slightly
sloped (pylon) with rounding
away of corners
is
at
the top.
The breaking
prevented by upward-sweeping
corner joints, with a battlement-like finish. From the 1st
Dynasty onwards, arched and barrel vaults of
Methods of brick construction. A: alternating headers and mainly as part of foundations
stretchers; B:
beams of
structures reinforced by upright
quoins,
i.e.
(as in the
pyramid temple
temple of
Amenemhat
walls at
stone, or
by
blocks laid using the stretcher-header system
Nubian
III
fortresses
stone. Brick-built
of Neferirkare, the valley
and
were
at
built
Karanis). The brick
on
a substructure of
pyramids and pylons frequently had
stone casing (for example, the Ptolemaic pylon
Medinet Habu and New Kingdom tombs
at
Saqqara).
Large structures were reinforced internally with
herringbone bonding inside a wall to reduce
its
a at
wooden
thickness; C: brick-on-
marks
Brick
36
beams (timber construction) and were
also provided
with air channels to allow the brickwork to dry. However, bricks in large-scale walls were laid 'dry' on a sand base. Bibliography: S.Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses,
(1916) 176-179; Clark, AEM 207-2
15;
The Bucheum
Plates 112-114; Robert
(London 1934),
III
ftodk,Karanis
in:
jEA
3
Robert Mond,
I;
Armant,
Temples of Armani (London 1940), Plates 34-39; Spencer, Brick Architecture; Nicholson, Materials 88-92.
Brick
marks
Bricks were often marked by scratching the wet surface with a finger, usually producing a simple
mastaba
of Nefermaat, the
mark (such
and so
fingerprints, lines, circles, crosses
name
tomb owner
of the
as
on). In the
->
is
scratched into the bricks. In large royal constructions, bricks are found with
numerous
different
marks, and
thus they must have indicated either the builder or the supplier rather than the
structure
itself.
owner of the building or the
Deeper holes on the end of a brick have
been interpreted as hand
holes.
De Morgan, Dahchour
Bibliography:
I
49, Fig.
1
Arnold, The
10; Dieter
Temple o/Mentuhotep at Deir el-Bahari (New York 1979), Plates 2-3.
moulded
Bricks,
Moulded
Bricks which, for construction or decorative purposes, deviate in shape from the normal format (bricks, of).
They were used
Kingdom onwards
to
in brick structures
shape
and columns;
or very
flat
curved bricks with deep lengthwise grooves
more
for
effective
adhesion of the mortar (Balat, 6th
Dynasty: 6.5 x 17 x 30 cm; Sety
I
at
funerary cone),
C from
corners of
in
also in the construction of vaults,
where they took the shape of particularly slightly
frieze bricks (see
buildings
from the Old
produce the corners of buildings
the form of cavetto cornices, torus mouldings, panels, profiles
bricks for different purposes. A: vaulting brick; B: cornice brick;
C-D: stamped
Abydos: 7.5 x 22 x
Bricks,
shape of
The shape of bricks changed considerably
in the course
of Egyptian history, depending on locality and on the field
same
of application; changes occurred even within the structure. Size generally
is
around 10 x 20 x 30
cm
(dating structures on the evidence of bricks alone
is
60 cm). In the Old Kingdom special shaped bricks were
usually impossible; the suggested relationship between
vaulted buildings, in which case tooth-
brick size and the size of structures in which they were
used like
at
Giza
for
protrusions provided improved stability within the
used has
to
be questioned):
vault structure. Square bricks were occasionally used as
floor
examples existing
tiles,
in the palace
Medinet Habu (43 x 43 cm) and at
Abydos
garden
at
the temple of Sety
at
(16 x 44 x 44 cm). Recent excavations at a
fortress near Tell el-Heir (Qantara) have recovered
some
cylindrical bricks, perhaps of Persian origin. Sculpted or
terracotta brickwork
was not used
in ancient Egypt,
but walls were decorated with faience
tiles
Structure
Brick size (cm)
Naqada
7.5 x
I
or inlays
I/II
at
7-8x12-13x25.5-29
Naqada
9x12.5x28
Beit Khallaf mastaba
Mastaba 17
at
Meidum
12.5x18.5x39.5
(architectural ceramics). See also funerary cones. Bibliography: A. Badawy, Brick vaults and
domes
Abdel-Moneim Abu-Bakr, Excavations
in the Giza necro-
and 13x22x41
Mentuhotep temple, Deir
1949-1950
Pyramid of Senwosret
II
(Cairo 1953) 129-143; Spencer, Brick Architecture 140-143; Eigner,
Pyramid of Senwosret
III
polis, in:
Grabbauten 75-78; 1996) 68-69.
F.
at Giza
Kampp, Die thebanische Nekropole
I
11.5x29
Mastaba of Menes
el-Bahari
(Mainz
8-10x16-18x34-37 19x22-25x45-49 11.5x19.5-21x39-42
and 15x22x43 Fortresses at
Buhen, Semna,
Kumma 8x15x32
Bubastis
Palace of
Sety
10x16x33
Malqata
14x20x40
Palace of
Merenptah
the
Memphis
Ramesses
III
8 x 19 x 39 temple,
Enclosure wall
Temple
at
Medinet Habu
at
is
Bibliography:
36-37
Gardiner,
x
1
m
in length
and
The suggestion
that
De Morgan, Dahchour
ASAE 25
III, in:
have existed. 144; A.H.
Fig.
Palestine, in:
pyramide de
Jequier, L'avenue de la
(1929) 60, Fig.l; Peet, City ofAkhenaten
Rostem, Bridges
86, Plate 2; O.R.
159-166;
to
99-100,
II
The ancient military road between Egypt and
Senousrit
4- 1 5.5 x 29-30
'window of
colonnade with a
a
doubtful. Bridges as crossings over the
JEA 6 (1920) 104-106; G. 12.5 x 19 x 38 1 1
apart.
moats of Nubian fortresses are known
44
12-14 x 17-18.5 x
Tukh el-Qaramus
Dima
m
pillars, 5
had
bridge
appearances'
14.5 x 21.5 x
Karnak
at
(reign of Philip Arrhidaeus)
Houses
supported on two
Ramps led from both
which was 15
sides onto the bridge,
atAbydos
at
palace separated by the Royal Road.
temple enclosure wall
I
37
E. Otto, Briicke, in:
in ancient Egypt, in:
Helck,
ASAE 48
III
(1948)
LA 871-872. I
Occasionally smaller bricks, better suited to achieving the required effect, were used to create the niching of
Bubasteion (Saqqara)
Early Dynastic mastabas:
The Graeco-Roman temple precinct of Bastet on the edge of the desert escarpment at
Tomb
of Menes,
7x9x17
Naqada
Saqqara (south of
Saqqara 3035
5 x
5x
17
is
Saqqara 3070
5 x
5x
10
325 m, with an imposing entrance gateway
1st
surrounded by an enclosure wall, measuring 275 x
dynasty mastabas, 6.5
x7x
Bibliography: For an overall plan see D.G. Jeffreys and H.S. Smith, The
15
Anubieion at Saqqara
Some square bricks occur in the Middle Kingdom Nubian fortresses at Buhen and Shafalk (5 x 30 x 30 cm) and in the Saite fortress at Gerar (33 x 33
I
stamps New Kingdom
known onwards, bricks were some-
times stamped with the cartouche of the royal owner of the structure or,
more
name
rarely, the
of a private
individual. Several examples of the latter are found in the
Late Period tombs at Thebes.
Funerary cones found
Theban tombs of the New Kingdom and are
stamped
at the
in
the Late Period
with an important Bastet temple,
of
m
now
in ruins.
and M.EL. Macadam, A Corpus of
wide enclosure. Although
little is
some building
activity
construction history,
its
by Khufu, Khafre, Amenemhat Senwosret
behind
a
columned kiosk, 17
three sides by
of Osorkon
I
columned
I
and
m high, and surrounded on 24 x 48 m wide court
halls, is the
with a gate structure of Osorkon
wall, decorated
hypostyle
Senwosret
I,
by re-used stone blocks. Situated
attested
III is
II
in
its
rear
with an exceptionally complete depiction
of a sed-festival cycle.
head end.
Bibliography: N. de Garis Davies
Fig. 1.
The principal temple, measuring 50 x 180 m, stands inside a 313 x 400
the
(London 1988),
Bubastis
A town
and 36 x 36 cm).
Bibliography: Spencer, Brick Architecture 147-148.
From
in the south.
There are also a cat cemetery and habitation remains.
south-east of Giza
Brick
the
Anubieion). The almost completely unrecorded precinct
The
gate forms the entrance to the
hall, consisting of a central hall with
unopened
Inscribed Egyptian Funerary Cones (Oxford 1957); Spencer, Brick
papyrus columns and lower side-halls with Hathor-
Architecture 144-146, Plates 21-36; Eigner, Grabbauten 75-77.
headed and palm columns. The structure
is
final
section of the
the temple house of Nectanebo built of red
II.
Most of
and black granite, with a
Bridge
the structure
Bridges in the sense of crossings over wide expanses of
cavetto cornice and a frieze of uraei round the top edge.
water, such as the Nile, were
unknown
Tradition relates the existence of
is
in ancient Egypt.
some kind
of crossing
construction)
in the reign of Sety
I.
examples of bridge-like structures, 3
There are several
m
temples
for
north-south
traffic
(Khufu, Khafre, Khentkawes
Senwosret HI,
Amenemhat
have been found
at
Nectanebo
II
Hathor Head
pyramid
i
U
Pillars
"
"
BC
I,
Amenemhat Remains of
II
(?),
Temple of Osorkon
a bridge
linking two parts of the
Plan of the Bastet temple
at
I
o o o
OOO
along the desert edge
III).
Amarna,
b=
II
\
wide, allowing
passage under the causeways leading to
Temple of Osorkon
b
over the Pelusian branch of the Nile at Sile (canal
Bubastis
I
O oo Sed-Festival
Gate
'Prop/ton' 3
oo
Bubastis
38
Central area of
Amenemhat
palace at Bubastis (C.C. van Siden,
Ill's
1996)
Grouped around the granite naos of Bastet
in
the
sanctuary, which was probably hypaetral, are six
monumental
naoi.
To the north,
at right angles to the axis
temple, stands the birth to
house of Osorkon
of the II,
main
dedicated
Mihos. North-west of the main temple are the oldest
monuments found Pepy
I
in situ at Bubastis: a
within a 75 x 90
m
further north, the remains of a similar,
precinct of Teti. 400
m
ka-house of
brick enclosure wall and,
somewhat smaller
to the north-east of the
main
temple stand the ruins of a 12th Dynasty palace with the
remains of a sed-festival gate of Amenemhat Bibliography: Herodotus, History
II
III.
137-138; Edouard Naville.Bufotffu
(1887-1889) (London 1891); Edouard
Naville,
The Festival-Hall;
Hathor Cairo
capital of
Osorkon
II
from Bubastis,
in the
Egyptian Museum,
Buhen Labib Habachi,
ASAE
Basta,
Tell
Habachi, Bubastis,
in:
Helck,
Report on the Excavations.
.
.at Tell
Ahmad el-Sawi, Excavations at The
city of Basta:
C.van II
Siclen,
from
LA
Tell
39
22 Suppl. (Cairo 1957); Labib
873-874;
I
Farid, Preliminary
S.
ASAE
Basta, in:
58 (1964) 85-98;
Basta (Prague 1979); C. van Siclen,
an interim report,
in:
NARCE
128 (1984) 28-29;
The shadow of the door and the jubilee
reliefs
of Osorkon
Varia Aegyptiaca 7 (1991) 81-87; Charles C. van
Tell Basta, in:
Siclen,
Remarks on the Middle Kingdom palace
Bietak,
House and Palace 239-246;
Geschichte einer Grabung,
C. Tietze
at Tell
Basta, in:
and M. Omar,
Tell Basta:
Arcus 4 (Berlin 1996).
in:
Bucheum The
burial precinct of the sacred Buchis bulls of Armant,
reminiscent of the Serapeum, situated in the fore-desert 5
km
south-west of Malqata, which was in use from the
30th Dynasty to the the walled
Roman
Period.
Plan of the
Isis
temple of Ahmose (North Temple)
at
Buhen
The superstructure of
temenos has disappeared, but the subterranean
towers in a cloverleaf arrangement.
corridors have been explored, which contain approximately
quarters and a temple
33 vaulted burial chambers branching off to sides with the
corner;
stone sarcophagi of the bulls. Situated 300
m to the east is
a smaller precinct, the'Baqariyyah', for the
mothers of the
c)
A commandant's
stood in the north-eastern
(?)
an outer enclosure wall along
all
four sides, built
before the end of the 12th Dynasty, reinforced with
many
rectangular towers alternating with larger corner and
Buchis bulls. Bibliography: Robert
Mond, The Bucheum,
3 Vols
intermediate bastions.
(London 1934).
A monumental
gate structure
stands in the north-south and the west-facing wall, that
Buhen
in the latter
Important remains of a
New Kingdoms on Wadi
fortified city of the
the West
Haifa, covering
Bank of
Middle and
Burnt
the Nile opposite
an area of 215 x 460 m. The
1,
712
m long
m thick, with 32 semi-circular towers, which backs
onto the river and has an irregular course; b) an inner fortress of Senwosret size,
with walls 5
m
thick
and
1 1
m
I,
150 x 170
m
in
high, fortified with
is
north-facing wall (c) are the remains of a
temple of
fortified at the corners
with semi-circular wall
Facade of the Horus temple of Hatshepsut and Thutmosis
Ahmose (North
courtyard. Beyond this
Temple),
III
(South Temple)
lie
fortress
was
re-
mud brick Isis
now
two transverse
appearances and offering table
consisting of
hall)
halls (hall of
and the sanctuary
with two flanking rooms.
There are two river gates and a monu-
mental entrance gate in the west wall. An outer container wall
Hyksos period, the
only the stone pillar halls around the three sides of the
rectangular towers and exceptionally strong bastions at the corners.
in the
Standing between the inner fortress (b) and the
an outer enclosure wall of Senwosret
and 4
down
erected in the 18th Dynasty.
following remains have been discovered: a)
reminiscent of a barbican castle with a
double outer wall.
Situated inside the fortress of the Middle (b)
is
a stone
Kingdom
temple of Hatshepsut and Thutmosis
III
(South Temple), dedicated to Horus of Buhen. Along with
at
Buhen
(after L. Borchardt); see also
Ambulatory temple,
for
plan
ramp
Building
40
Amada, this
is
a
good example of an ambulatory temple
of the Thutmoside period. Stone blocks removed from
have been found
it
Faras.
at
town
little
to the north, are
of the Old
approximately 120 x 950 m.
A
protected by a fore- wall 65
m
Kingdom, area
section of the wall
Buhen stood under floods
circular wall towers.
is
away with 18 semi-
The South Temple has been moved
in 1965.
museum
to the
of
The longest road known,
km
10
from the basalt quarries of Gebel el-Qatrani
long, leads to
Situated along the river bank, a the remains of a walled
of closely packed stone.
Lake Faiyum.
A
m
slipway for boats, 77
from the Middle Kingdom, has been found Nubia. This road
is
long, dating
Mirgissa
at
wood and
strengthened with
clay
in
and
m wide to be dragged overland to
enabled boats up to 3
avoid the dangers of the Second Cataract. Bibliography: Arnold, Building 79- 101;
Klemm, Steine,
Figs 180-181,
336,378,474.
Khartoum. Bibliography: D. Randall-Maciver and C.L. Wooley, Buhen ( Philadelphia 191 1) 84-94;
S.
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in:
(1916) 161-163; Ricardo Caminos, The
Buhen, 2 Vols (London 1974);
L.
New Kingdom
Habachi, Buhen,
880-882; excavation report by W.B. Emery,
in:
in:
JEA
3
Temples of
Helck,
LA
I
Kush 7 (1959) 7-14; 8
Building stones, see also stone quarry, stone quarrying techniques, stone working Only a few of the types of stone customarily used
in
sculpture and the production of stone vessels were
employed
in
Egyptian architecture. The following data
(1960) 7-10; 9 (1961) 81-86; 10 (1962) 106-108; 11 (1963) 116-120;
are available about the various types of stone used in
W.B. Emery, H.S. Smith and A. Millard, The Fortress of Buhen, The
construction:
Report
Archaeological
(London
1979);
Hein,
Bautatigkeit 41-47.
Stone type
Building ramp, see also ramp Many examples of ramps used in are attested,
construction work
from the pyramids of the 3rd and 4th
Dynasties to the temples of the Middle Kingdom: they are illustrated in the
tomb
of
Rekhmire. These
structures are usually supported on both sides by walls
of rock or
many
mud
/
Ramessidische
brick.
The
interior of
ramps was
in
cases strengthened by the insertion of heavy
Specific gravity
Pressure
(kg/cm^)
resistance
Compact limestone
2.65-2.85
Porous fossil-rich 1.70-2.60
limestone
Nubian sandstone
600-1200
2.00-2.65
Siliceous sandstone
2.60-2.80
(quartzite) Calcite (alabaster)
2.70
beams, often re-used from ships. These do not form the
Granite (rose granite)
2.60-3.20
1000-2000
surface of the ramp, which
Diorite
2.75-2.87
2000
Basalt
2.80-3.30
2500-5000
Dolerite
2.93-3.05
800
layer of
mortar and
m)
provided instead by a
chips, as hard as cement, covering
the working surface. (5.25
is
The average ramp was 10 cubits
wide, the angle of slope varying from 10 to 17°.
Papyrus Anastasi
I
building ramp, 400
describes a theoretical
mud
brick
m long and 30 m high.
In quarry areas, there are
Bibliography: Kurt Sethe, Die Bau-
Agypter und
numerous examples of
transportation roads and loading ramps. Generally
them now
Namen
Harris,
London
und Denkmalsteine der
(Berlin 1933); Jequier,
Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials
all J.R.
that remains of
ihre
1962);
and Industries
Klemm, Steine; De
(4th Ed., revised by
Putter, Pierres.
are their supporting side-walls
I
.,
...J.
S -;^
EZI
>r
imr
\*m Construction
ramp
for a pylon (?), as depicted in the
tomb
of Rekhmire
alien
Manuel 26-31; Alfred
Buto
41
Ma/ cm
A: demolition
ramp of New Kingdom
date at Giza; B: building
ramp
at the
pyramid of Senwosret
was
Butic
I
at El-Lisht,
later translated into
with bases for hoisting devices
brick and covered with a long
barrel vault with high sides at the short ends.
The term applied
to a
form of buildings developed on the
model of the pre-dynastic
royal
tombs of Lower Egypt and
the state sanctuary (the Per-nu or Per-neser) at Buto. actual prototypes at Buto have been lost,
only preserved in the hieroglyph.
The
and so the form
It
is
most
is
clearly
represented in the royal sarcophagi of the 12th Dynasty.
The structure was probably with a vaulted roof and
tall
a longish, rectangular building
corner posts of wood or reed.
that the
It is
not likely
Lower Egyptian niched brick structures ('tomb of
Menes') developed out of that form. Butic chapels appear to
have stood
in
palm
groves,
shape of the palm column courts
and
is
which explains why the
interpreted as Butic
halls furnished with that type of
and why
column
are
regarded as Butic structures. Bibliography: Miiller, Monumentalarchitektur 8-10.
It
Buto The ancient twin town of Dep and Pe
in the Delta. At its
north-west perimeter are the unique remains of archaic
some mounds
structures, possibly with
cultic
Situated between the two
of rubble of former
significance.
settlements are the remains of the temple of Wadjet, attested to
from the 12th Dynasty. The outer enclosure
(174 x 260 x 234 x 306
m) surrounds
facing temple (31 x 65 m), which
is itself
the large south-
contained within
two enclosure walls, the inner of which
is
of limestone
covered with slabs of quartzite. According to Herodotus, the antechamber was
17.76
m
high.
The
ceiling
was
constructed of slabs of quartzite and decorated with stars.
z
^
Hieroglyphic representation of the possible Butic shrine
Herodotus's statement that the monolithic naos
was 17.76
m
high
is
probably an exaggeration. The
temple was probably of Saite origin (possibly of the reign
Buto
42
of Amasis).
It
was destroyed by the
by the early Ptolemies but
it
Buto has become better
soon
German light
fell
known
pre-historic remains. Studies
Persians,
and
rebuilt
into ruin again.
in recent years for its
and excavations by the
Archaeological Institute,
Cairo, have brought to
remains of settlements that flourished from
historic to Byzantine times. Layers dating
late pre-
from the Early
Dynastic Period and the Old
Kingdom contained
interesting brick structures,
some apparently decorated
with clay cones (funerary cones).
A
several
connection with
V
(3rd Dynasty) at Buto (after
from the
T von der Way)
155-156; W.M. Flinders Petrie,
II
Delta,
Buto and Chemmis,
Plates 43-44;
in:
ASAE
11
- 56 (1970); H. Altenmuller, Buto,
in:
Helck,
Way, Reports of the German excavations,
LA
in:
I
C.C
Edgar, Notes
(1911) 87-90; M.V.
Seton-Williams, Reports of the English excavations,
in:
jEA 51
887-889;
MDAIK 42
T.
(
1965)
von der
(1986) - 44
(1988); T. von der Way, Excavations at Tell el-Fara'in/Buto in
1987-1989,
in:
The Nile Delta
(Tel Aviv 1992) 1-10;
T
in Transition: 4th.-3rd.
Tell el-Fara'in.
Buto
Millennium B.C.
von der Way, Early dynastic architecture
Tell el-Fara'ain-Buto, in: Bietak,
Way,
Mesopotamia cannot be excluded.
Plan of a building of layer
Bibliography: Herodotus, History
Ehnasya 1904 (London 1905) 36-38,
I
at
House and Palace, 247-252; T. von der
(Mainz 1997).
c Caisson
An
invention of the 12th Dynasty
deeper
pits
at
El-Lisht by which
could be cut into unstable substrata.
It
Canal construction dams and canals required
Artificial
inundation waters of the Nile and to
control the
to
facilitate
boat
traffic
consisted of a monolithic limestone box, open at the
were created by means of the corvee system. Several such
bottom, which was sunk into the ground until
man-made
constructions are
sources, but
none
it
bedrock and the ensuing side-walls, which were
reached
at risk
of
the Old
collapsing, were stabilised with brick walls.
pyramid
leading to the
Complex ofSenwosret I (New York 1 992 33-34,
used as approach paths
Fig.
1
0.
'Campbell's tomb' of Khafre at Giza. In the
tomb, north of the causeway
main
shaft
is
a crypt lined with
The main
The
shaft
is
ceiling
is
an interesting double vault.
surrounded on
all
sides
by four rows of
four side-shafts, from which loose sand fed into the shaft to prevent robbing.
main
The complex was not completed.
The tomb of Wedjahorresnet Bibliography: Vyse, Operations
II
1
at
Abusir
is
and
for
which there
is
of the Suez Canal: a) the fresh
water canal from the Pelusian
through Wadi Tumilat to the
and feeds
of the Nile leading
which was used as
into the Mediterranean,
Middle Kingdom
to act as a frontier (Sety
running further aerial
£-':•
arm
Bitter Lakes; b) the Pelusian
branch of the Nile ('East Canal'), which passes El-Hebua
Period onwards, perhaps,
stone vault
m long.
partial archaeological evidence
may have been forerunners
and
3 1 - 1 44; Arnold, Building 201.
First
Three sections of canal attested from written sources
early as the
similar.
The
navigable in the 6th
Dynasty by the provision of a canal 75
Saite shaft
blocks of stone and containing an anthropoid sarcophagus of hard stone.
building sites (subsequently
to the valley temples).
Aswan was made
Cataract near
A monumental
literary
Kingdom, man-made waterways were provided
Bibliography: Arnold, Building 211-212; D. Arnold, The Pyramid )
known from
are as yet attestable in archaeology. In
it
to the east,
photography; and
its
to irrigate I's
bridge).
Northern Sinai
From
the Late
was replaced by a canal course recendy verified by
an actual shipping route
c)
connecting the Bitter Lakes with the Red Sea, which was not started until the reign of Nekho
II,
who
(according to
Herodotus) cancelled the project after the loss of 120,000
workmen. (three
was continued by Darius
It
and was, according long;
it
Helck,
LA VI 1124-1126;
Egyptian frontier canal,
W. Shea, A date
BASOR 226 revolution in:
Helck,
Helck,
LA
to a
II
384
width of 45
km
m and
m.
Bibliography: Herodotus, History
izzzirm
finishing at Suez
to Herodotus, approximately
was renewed by Ptolemy
a depth of 5
in:
I,
memorial stelae have been found north of Suez)
in:
II
158; H. Goedicke,
A. Sneh et
American
al.,
Wadi Tumilat,
Evidence for an Ancient
Scientist 63 (1975)
542-548;
for the recently discovered eastern canal of Egypt, in:
(1977) 31-38; Wolfgang Schenkel, Die Bewasserungs-
im Alten Agypten (Mainz 1978); Wolfgang Schenkel, Kanal,
LA III
III
310-312; K.W. Butzer, Kanal, Nil-Rotes Meer,
3 1 2-3 1 3; Margaret Cool Root, The
King and Kingship
in:
in
Achaemenide Art (Leiden 1979) 61-68; Giinther Garbrecht and Horst Section through the burial
chamber of Campbell's tomb' at
weight-relieving structure and true stone vault
Giza, with
its
Jaritz,
Untersuchungen antiker Anlagen zur Wasserspeicherung im
Fayum/Agypten (Brunswick-Cairo 1990).
Canopic recess, canopic shrine
44
Canopic recess, canopic shrine The earliest known burials of canopies Dynasty (Dahshur, near Senwosret
east side of
canopic shrines became reduced to canopic chests. The
pyramid),
canopic chest of Tutankhamun was enshrined in a
Ill's
consisting of sarcophagus-size chests of alabaster,
sometimes
a specially provided shaft.
in
an anteroom. After the Middle Kingdom
date from the 3rd
The
first
magnificent gilded canopy. Bibliography: K. Martin, Kanopen, Kanopenkasten,
in:
Helck,
LA
III
example from a royal context was a stone chest of
315-320; Arnold, A wiewm/ief 7/799- 103; Aidan Dodson, TheCanopic
canopies in a recess of the burial chamber of Hetepheres
Equipment of the Kings of Egypt (London-New York 1994); Salima
I
at
Giza (4th Dynasty). The canopic containers of
Khufu were probably placed
Sneferu and
in
the
Ikram and Aidan Dodson, The
Mummy
in
Ancient Egypt (London
1998)276-292.
chimney-like southern recesses of their burial chambers.
Canopic recesses have been found the early 4th Dynasty
onwards
at
tombs from
in private
Meidum and Dahshur
(northern and southern mastabas), and subsequently
at
Canopy, baldachin The
original
form of the kiosk, made of wood,
in the
form of a shady roof on supports lending distinction
to
Giza and Abusir (Ptahshepses). Canopic shrines were
the person or deity below
traditionally placed at the foot-end of the coffin, either at
represented 'heaven' over the throne and was especially
the eastern
end of the south wall or
southern end
at the
important in coronations or sed-festivals with
of that facing east. In later royal tombs of the Old
characteristic
Kingdom, the canopies were
chamber of a temple
burial
set into the floor of the
chamber (Khafre, Djedkare
Merenre). In
Isesi,
the Middle Kingdom, in queens'
tombs
private persons, their location
the southern end of
the east wall.
is at
The small purpose-made wall
earlier periods
changed
in
II
and
III,
Amenemhat
often no longer in the burial
recesses of
the course of the
Dynasty, developing into a chapel
(Senwosret
or those of
chamber
at
12th
man's height
III at
Dahshur),
itself
but on the
In royal ceremonial,
it.
took the
over the divine barque, but inside a temple
made of stone were found
found
in
in
(i.e.
the
it
was usually
a kiosk). As a secular feature, canopies
gardens and on boats. They are also widely
Western architecture.
Bibliography: A.M. Badawy,
ZAS
its
barque form of a wooden shrine
double-curved joof. In it
it
The approach
to the
Egyptian temple,
in:
102 (1975) 79-90; Adolf Reinle, Zeichensprache der Architektur
(Zurich-Munich 1976) 337-344. 607-608; M.
D. Arnold, Baldachin, in: Helck,
Miiller, Schrein, in: Helck,
LA
I
LA V 709-712.
^~
^ Canopic
pyramid
recess: A:
canopic chamber adjacent to the burial chamber of Senwosret
III at
Dahshur;
B:
canopic chamber in the queens' tomb of the same
Causeway Capital
A
Amenemhat
huge figures on
connecting structure between a
column
Ill's
pyramid
45 Hawara.
at
and
Inscriptions found by the entrance of several Old
the entablature (abacus, Fig.), in the form of a floral or
Kingdom pyramids are reminders of the restoration work undertaken by Khaemwaset in the reign of Ramesses II. The casing of many pyramids had already
or pillar
other figured ornament. In Egyptian architecture part of the shaft of the floral
column and
is
it
is
predominantly
(composite capital), exceptions being the Hathor
(sistrum) and Bes-shaped capitals. Bibliography: D.Arnold, Kapitell, in: Helck,
been removed
in the
New Kingdom. The
robbery of
the casing of the pyramids at Giza for Islamic building
LA
III
projects in Cairo
323-327.
and
in the Delta did not start until
the 12th century AD. There are considerable remains
Casing, pyramid casing
of the casing on the pyramids of Khafre,
The coarse core masonry of pyramids, mastabas,
on the Bent Pyramid and
and so on, was clad with
casing of pyramids, see
carefully cut blocks of Tura
limestone resting on 'backing
stones'. Until the
beginning
of the 4th Dynasty (Bent Pyramid), casing blocks
were
tilted
horizontally.
slightly inwards, but later
The height of the individual courses of casing
decreases from 1.2-1.5 at the top.
they were laid
m
near the base to 50-70
cm
Menkaure,
Meidum. For granite pyramid construction. The at
rubble core of mastabas was cased with rough blocks, overlaid with the actual casing of block filled in
masonry and
behind with rubble.
Bibliography: Herodotos, History
II
148; Reisner, Giza
I
178-183;
Arnold, Building in Egypt 164-176.
Corner blocks were large and particularly
carefully cut,
and from the 12th Dynasty onwards they
Causeway
were firmly anchored with dowels (cramps). The
The connection between the valley temple on the edge of
pyramidion forms
the cultivation
the tip of the casing. Lever holes in
the casing blocks shows that they were slid into place
sideways, their
somewhat sloping outer surface being
dressed after a complete course had been
laid.
Damage
and the pyramid temple on the desert
plateau. There are
no causeways associated with the
funerary complexes of the kings of the Early Dynastic Period and they
first
appear
in the
east-west orientated
caused by settling required extensive repairs using
pyramid precincts introduced
small stones. The suggestion that the casing of pyramids
They could be
was painted red cannot be proved. Herodotus mentions
sometimes separated these two structures:
in the reign of Sneferu.
quite lengthy, due to the distance which
bedrock
backing stones
yC*
Interlocking of granite casing blocks, backing stones
and bedrock
in the
pyramid of Khafre
at
Giza
Cavetto cornice, torus moulding
46
241m 616m
Meidum Khufu
m m 600 m 235 m 400 m 666 m
The
Sahure Niuserre
Unas
(Dahshur)
III
181
through
in the ceiling.
slits
row on the tops of
Egypt
to this day.
For this reason,
built of stone,
its
and green palm fronds and occasionally
Its
symbolism
Harmakhis
is
lower
inlaid
(Malqata, architectural
tiles
is
probably related to the
seh-netjer chapel (divine booth).
As they hindered
walls,
usually decorated with an abstract form of
is
decoration).
m
a
surface
red, blue
Causeways were narrow, roofed corridors lit
in
in
cavetto cornice
dimly
a
customary
with coloured faience
515m
II
Amenemhat
on
origin of the cavetto cornice can be traced to
palm fronds planted
1500
Menkaure
in later buildings they rest
square base.
494
Khafre Djedefre
Pepy
brick or wooden mats;
The
earliest classic
the upper finishing element on the
temple;
it
then spread rapidly in
pyramid
temples, mastabas and sarcophagi of the Old Kingdom,
on pylons,
movement, they were often provided with passageways
and subsequently
beneath (bridge). From the 5th Dynasty onwards, the
screen walls, with interesting cropped forms appearing
walls were decorated with reliefs depicting, at the lower
in
end, apotropaic scenes of the triumph of the royal
cornices and torus mouldings
sphinxes over the enemy and, further up, tribute bearers
constructed of bricks
from
as well as scenes
of Senwosret
life
(Niuserre, Unas). T he causeway
included
I
some
royal statue pillars. In
terms of their significance, causeways were simply elongated inner rooms which connected two
also
passageways (Deir el-Medina,
are occasionally
moulded
crowned with
xm
gates, pillars
Fig.).
Later cavetto
brick buildings are
specially. Cavetto cornices
a frieze of uraei. Cavetto
cornice decoration spread to Palestine and Syria, and as far as Persia
and Lower
Italy
(Doric temples).
spatially
separate but functionally closely linked buildings. In the
Middle Kingdom, causeways were flanked on both sides by protective brick walls. In
many cases
only these walls
it is
which survive and they are often mistaken causeways. This kind of false causeway
is
for
open'
found only
at
Deir el-Bahari leading to the temples of Mentuhotep,
Hatshepsut and Thutmosis planted
at
III,
the latter of which
was
the lower end with a double line of trees. These
were actually processional ways, especially associated with the festivals of
Amun. From
causeways were
the 6th Dynasty, imitation
built leading
provincial rulers of Aswan
and
up
to
the
tombs of the
Qaw el-Kebir.
Bibliography: Borchardt, Ne-user-Re 42-49; Selim Bey Hassan,
Excavations
Aufweg,
at
Saqqara,
Helck,
in:
LA
Catalogue (Milan 1985),
in: I
ASAE
38 (1938) 519-520; R. Drenkhahn,
555-556;
Fig. 17;
Oltri Egitto:
Nubia, Exhibition
numerous examples
in
Mark
Lehner,
Complete Pyramids.
Cavetto cornice, torus moulding The cavetto
is
an important structural feature
in
Egyptian architecture. The torus moulding forms the finishing element along the vertical or horizontal edges of
buildings,
and the cavetto cornice emerges out of
horizontal torus moulding. the Djoser precinct, where
The it
latter first
appeared
a at
was not accompanied by a
cavetto cornice. Torus mouldings are usually painted in
yellow surrounded by a black band. They developed out
of the protective edges on bundles of reed
more
likely,
or,
perhaps
the corner posts of early structures built of
and
Lower end of torus mouldings
in the
temple ot
Kom Ombo
Ceiling construction
W.M.
Flinders Petrie, Egyptian Decorative Art
(London
study.
1895) 97-100; Jequier, Manuel 72-76; Junker, Giza XI 101,
Fig. 50a;
rafters, or the split
Bibliography:
Ricke, Bemerkungen
LA
II
1
89-90, 151.A.279; Arnold, Hohlkehle, in: Helck,
1263-1264; Arnold, Rundstab,
in:
Helck,
LA V 320-321.
They seem mostly
ribs or
47
been a framework of
to have
stems of palm
were no more than palm
I
trees,
and often they
dense reed matting. This
framework was overlaid with reed mats covered with a
mixed with clay. At Amarna, rafters of medium size and side-rafters bear ceilings of this kind made of palm ribs and mats. The underside of the ceiling
layer of straw
Ceiling construction, see also roof, vault Egyptian architecture has broadly four types of Flat ceilings in
a)
ceiling:
stone buildings (made of lime-
stone, sandstone, granite) were the only form of ceiling
end of the 3rd Dynasty, and also the preferred
until the
form
until the latest periods of
burial
beams
Egyptian architecture; the
chamber of the pyramid of Khufu has granite (2
until the
m
thick, with a
New Kingdom
span of 5.25 m).
that distances of
up
It
to 7
was not
m were
spanned using sandstone beams (hypostyle hall of Karnak: sandstone slabs
1.25
m
thick
and 9
m
long,
is
covered with white plaster and frequently painted with
The
a carpet pattern. fibre,
ceiling plaster contains fine plant
and the structure of the
gypsum
decorated with designs, such as carpet patterns
or vultures in at
flight.
Ceilings in the 1st
side
by
ceiling
ceilings in
III
and
Amenemhat
III at
Dahshur). Flat
brick architecture have received
Construction of the roof over the middle and side halls hall at
Karnak
little
detailed
at the
hypostyle
beams
example
in the
are
masonry on
sometimes represented
top.
a
Round
in stone, for
entrance hall of the precinct of Djoser, in
mastabas of the Old Kingdom and
Senwosret
laid
which was placed reed matting with
side, over
were hollowed out, giving them a cross-section
Senwosret
Dynasty mastabas
Saqqara consist of round beams with heavy planks
thick layer of sand or brick
like
to the
underside of the rafters and covered with rough-cast
spanning 6.7 m). In a few cases, the sides of ceiling beams
girders today, in order to reduce their weight (pyramids of
rafters is usually visible. At
Malqata, poles with straw mats are fastened
III at
in
tombs of the reign of
Dahshur and Abydos.
A: reconstruction of decorated roofing
beams
Amarna;
beam decorated from below with
B: reconstruction of a roofing
a carpet pattern, from the palace at Malqata
in private
house V.36.6
at
48
Ceiling construction
Pyramid of Djedkare
Pyramid of Sahure
1
i
i
Above: section through the ceiling (with the burial
triple relieving slabs)
over the burial chambers of Sahure and Djedkare. Below: section through the ceiling of
chambers of Shepseskaf, Menkaure and a queen's tomb of Senwosret
III at
Dahshur
S^,
:*&m Shepseskaf
Senwosret
""'
^ '
Menkaure
S
"".•"•
I
Cellular construction
Bibliography: Peet, City of Akhenaten
b) See corbelled vault.
and stone saddle
c) Relieving or slab vaults
el-Amarna, Figs
roofs were
6, 25;
II,
49
52, Fig. 6; Borchardt, Tell
Arnold, Pyramid Complex 50-52, 72.
only used in subterranean structures such as pyramids
and tombs, and
for the first
Khufu, where the
relieving slabs are
up the
to
time in the pyramid of
7-8
m long, weighing
36 tonnes. The burial chambers in the pyramids of
5— 6th Dynasties had gigantic roof structures
consisting of relieving slabs (in that of Niuserre the slabs
weighed 90 tonnes each). Pressure was diverted sidewards
masonry and the
into the filler
chamber stood detached development reached
Amenemhat Hawara and
peak
its
Senwosret
II,
actual walls of the
in front of the ceiling slabs.
III
the
in
and
The
pyramids of
Amenemhat
III at
neighbouring tombs. Occasionally, the
their
roofing slabs were designed to interlock at the apex of the
roof by a system of complicated joints. d) at
The
first
true stone vaults were built under Sneferu
Dahshur,
practice not revived until the 25th
a
Dynasty. Brick vaults were
common from
the 3rd
Dynasty (Beit Khallaf), constructed without centring by laying the
first
arch against a vertical, supporting wall.
Subsequent arches were therefore
all
inclined.
Vaults are found, usually in the shape of a shallow arch
imitated in the rock, in rock
tomb
construction from the
Middle Kingdom onwards, and particularly
Kingdom under
the influence of
the halls of palaces. In the
in the
New
temple sanctuaries and
tomb of Senenmut (TT
71),
the ceiling of the transverse hall takes several forms
united by their symbolism: a barrel vault
flat ceiling,
and a Per- wer- shaped Choisy, L'art de
Bibliography:
a saddle roof, a
ceiling.
batir 66-69;
L.
Borchardt, Die
Entstehung der Teppichbemalung an altagyptischen Decken und
Gewolben,
in: Zeitschrift
fur Bauwesen 79 (1929) 111-115; Jequier,
Manuel 289-295, 303- 14; Clark, AEM 1 54- 1 6 1 Walter ;
Tombs of
the First
Dynasty
(London 1958); Walter
B.
1
(Cairo 1949),
II
B.
Emery, Great
(London 1954),
4-5; Walter B. Emery, Archaic Egypt ( London 1961) 184-188;
Gewolbe,
in:
Helck,
LA
III
Emery, The Tomb of Hemaka (Cairo 1938)
II
J.
in:
Helck,
LA
I
998-1002; Arnold, Building 183-201; Studies on the Palace ofMalqata
Waseda
1993), Plates 5-13; Salah El-Naggar, Les voutes
A
technique of constructing foundations in brick
buildings. In order to save
dwelling houses (Kahun, cellars
Amarna,
are usually small
rectangular pits, lined with brick and roofed with
beams
(occasionally with a brick vault). For better security, they
filled
the
New Kingdom onwards
el-Abd, Tell el-Dab'a, late fortresses (for
cellars
are found in
El-Lisht are covered with beehive-shaped brick
domes
pyramids
accessible via a lockable entrance hole.
to increase
and the spaces between were
with sand or rubble.
were often below the bedroom. Some food storage
and are
on materials and
substructures were constructed in the form of a
regular grid of brick walls,
Deir el-Medina, Karanis),
at
Amarna
Cellular construction
tall
Cellar
many
at
the stability of (in particular) fortresses and palaces,
dans Varchitecture de I'Egypte ancienne, 2 Vols (Cairo 1999).
Attested to in
room
589-594; Spencer, Brick Architecture
123-127; G. Haeny, Decken- und Dachkonstruktion,
(University of
Subterranean, beehive-shaped cellar store
Brinks,
Good examples (such as
Medamud
example
mastabas of
of the Middle
at
at
exist
from
Ballas,
Kom
and Amarna) and
Defenna);
earlier
the 1st Dynasty
Kingdom. In
and
late
in
forms
in brick
complexes
(such as the palace of Apries, at Mendes, Defenna and
Cenotaph
50 Tell
a
el-Maskhuta) the spaces were oval-shaped and had
domed
roof (cupola). Cellular construction was also
used in brick building ramps.
at
MDAIK
B.J.
Kemp, The Palace of
I
Memphis,
in:
33 (1977) 104-106;
Casemate foundations once again, in: A. Leahy and on Ancient Egypt
—
in
for the placenta of the
Sokar tomb, as well as the survival of
Bibliography: Spencer, Brick Architecture 79;
Apries
ka-tomb, the duality of Upper
statue burials, Osiris tomb,
and Lower Egypt, tomb
J.
Spencer,
A.J.
Tait,
Eds, Studies
divergent burial practices. Cenotaphs for rulers are also
widely found in cultures outside Egypt
England and France had the notions of the
and the 'body
Honour ofH.S. Smith (London 1999) 295-300.
king or
earlier, locally
(medieval
'royal corpse'
politic').
Bibliography (general):
Lauer, Histoire
J.-P.
monumentale 131-142;
W.K. Simpson, The Terrace of the Great God at Abydos: The Offering Chapels of Dynasties 12 and 13
W.K. Simpson, Kenotaph, Doppelbestattung,
in:
(New Haven und
Helck,
in:
Helck,
LA
1
LA
III
Philadelphia 1974);
387-391; H. Altenmuller,
1128-1130; Edwards, Pyramids
52-53; David O'Connor, The 'Cenotaphs' of the Middle Kingdom
-
Abydos,
in:
at
Melanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar (Cairo 1985) 161-177;
Arnold, Amenemhet
III.,
99- 103; Peter
F.
Dorman, The Monuments of
Senenmut (London 1988) 141-164; E.Dziobek, 118 A.34; Peter
F.
in:
MDAIK 45
(1989)
Dorman, The Two Tombs of Senenmut (New York
1991) 163; Peter Metcalf and Richard Huntington, Celebrations of
Death (Cambridge, Mass. 1991); Friedrike Kampp, Die thebanische Nekropole
Cestius,
I
(Mainz 1996) 90-91.
pyramid of
The completely preserved pyramid tomb of the praetor and
people's tribune Gaius Epulo Cestius near the Porta
Ostiensis at
Rome, erected between 18 and
following Cestius's stay in Egypt. The core Cellular construction of the foundations of the central fortified tower at
Defenna
plastered with cement
and coated
in
stands on a travertine base of 30 sq m. variously as 27, 36.4
and 37 m.
is
12
marble, and
Its
height
is
burial
Duplicates of tombs, or false tombs, were erected either
incorporated into the Aurelian city fortifications.
of several kings (South
Tomb
in the
Djoser precinct, Mentuhotep's temple with the Bab
Abydos commemorative
el-Hosan), or as separate structures at
tomb, Senwosret
III).
Private
without a tomb were also set up
at
Abydos
(Osiris
or
more
stelae.
A
clear separation
with an upper and a lower tomb, and officials
at
71
a
kings'
tombs several
tombs
and 353, User-Amun TT 61 and
Menkheperreseneb TT 86 and
112, Djehutinefer
131,
TT
80
Nakhtmin TT 87 and Sennefer TT 96). The underlying intention was to unite a lower tomb, acting as
and
104,
the magical, underworld burial place, with the upper
tomb, which represented the splendid, living Private
memorial cenotaphs are
el-Silsila.
also
cult place.
found
S.
Angelo, was destroyed
(Tubingen 1962) 59,321-323.
of the 18th Dynasty also had two separate
(Senenmut TT
Castel
Bibliography: Ernest Nash, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient
Thebes
at
Gebel
Conflicting interpretations exist concerning the
concept of multiple burial places, for example places for
later
in the 16th century.
between tomb and
New Kingdom
was
Another, larger pyramid, the 'Meta Romuli', on the
bank of the Tiber near the
room memorial chapel containing one
cenotaph was provided in
It
Middle
Kingdom. These were brick-built courtyards with vaulted single
chamber measures 4.10 x 5.95 m.
chapels
in the
it
given
Inside, the decorated
Cenotaph at the burial sites
BC
of brick
Pyramid of Cestius
in
Rome
Rome
II
Chisel
Chamber An
of the Seasons
every side with magnificent raised
room
Egyptological term for the inner
of the two
chambers of the chapel beside the base of the obelisk
with water spouts, cornice.
Ramps
relief;
51
the roof, fitted
surrounded with a cavetto
is
lead up to
it
from the east and the west.
sun temple of Niuserre. This was not a real chamber, but rather an antechamber in the
In the centre was a base, no longer preserved, probably
base of the obelisk. The walls were
symbolic 'petrified' sed-festival kiosk. The perfection of
decorated with depictions of events in nature caused by
this small building suggests the existence of earlier
in the
cult
approach
to the
the sun during the seasons of inundation (Akhet)
and
harvest (Shemu).
models.
Bibliography: Borchardt, Re-Heiligtum 49-50; William Stevenson
dem Sonnenheiligtum
aus
1974); Egyptian Art in the
des Ne-user-re, Vol.
and Henri Chevrier, Une chapelle de
Pierre Lacau
Age of the Pyramids, exhibition catalogue
und Funktion der Weiften Kapelle
Channelling, of columns columns,
le
marks
left
by working
with an adze, or simply a reflection of the need to
make
divisions in the surface. First seen in buildings at the
pillars (Beni
it
is
Karnak,
found frequently
in
IXe pylone.in: Karnak
la
I.,
in:
in:
Kurth, Tempeltagung
Karnak;
C. Traunecker,
chapelle de Sesostris Ier decouverte dans
VU
121-126.
on the
either intended to represent the
texture of the bark of a tree or the
Djoser precinct,
in
287-318; Andere Monumente Sesostris'
Rapport preliminaire sur
shafts of
Sesostris Ier a
Karnak, 2 Vols (Cairo 1956-65); Ch. Straufi-Seeber, Bildprogramm
(New York 1999) 356-357.
Vertical grooving (also called fasciculation)
28 (1928)
115-116; 29 (1929) 135-142; 31 (1931) 91-92; 34 (1934) 172-175;
(Berlin
1
Museum
ASAE
Bibliography: Excavation reports of H. Chevrier in
(New Haven-London
1965) Figs 178-179; Elmar Edel and Steffen Wenig, Die Jahreszeitenreliefs
has been re-erected in the Open Air
It
Karnak.
at
Smith, Interconnections in the Ancient Near East
probably represents a
for a statue of the king. This
polygonal
Hasan, Semna, Beit el-Wali). Since
Chapelle Rouge Monumental two-room barque sanctuary which was It is
is
15
set
up by Hatshepsut
Amun,
for
in the centre of
Karnak.
m long, with a base decorated with niching, and
built of black
granite with red quartzite walls.
broken up by Thutmosis
III,
and then
was
It
built into the
Amenhotep
Champollion such columns have been incorrectly referred
foundations of the third pylon by
to as protodoric.
stone blocks have been found bearing an important
Bibliography: Jequier,
Manuel 177-184;
Ricke,
Bemerkungen
I
77-84.
decorative
Chapelle Blanche White limestone barque station for the sed-festival of
Senwosret
I,
Air
Museum
at
Bibliography: Pierre Lacau at
Karnak, erected
foundations of the third pylon in 1927-38. The kiosk
m, with four rows of four
on
m
pillars,
Karnak
de
la
chapelle rouge,
in:
in
1999-2000.
and Henri Chevrier, Une chapelle
d'Hatshepsout, 2 Vols (Cairo 1977, 1979);
recovered from the
6.54 x 6.54 a 1.18
programme, and the chapel was reconstructed
Open
in the
319
III.
F.
Le Saout,
Un nouveau bloc
Karnak VII 71-73.
is
and stands
high base. The pillars are decorated on
Circular construction This architectural form was customary in Egypt only in pre-historic habitation structures (with a
domed
Merimde-Benisalame, El-Omari, El-Ma'adi), and
roof:
it
died
out with the introduction of rectangular brick buildings. Circular structures survive only in hieroglyphic signs in the
and
image of the traditional Min sanctuary. This was
probably a circular tent with a protruding central support
and side-supports. Rounded corners
T
are found in temple
Djoser and the 'High Sand'
in the precinct of
Hierakonpolis and Heliopolis, which may reflect
at
earlier
circular structures. Bibliography:
P.
Lacau, L'erection du mat devant
28 (1953) 13-22; A. Badawy, Min, the cosmic Mitt. d. Institutsfiir Orientforschung 7 (1959)
Amon-Min,
fertility
in:
CdE
god of Egypt, in:
163-179;
I.
Munro.Ite;
Zelt-Heiligtum de Min, Miinchner Agypt. Studien 41 (Munich 1983);
M.
The Chapelle Blanche reconstructed at Karnak
of Senwosret
I,
with stepped ramp,
Bietak,
Rundbauten,
in:
Helck,
LA V 318-320.
now Chisel, see stone
working
Colossal statue
52
Colossal statue, see also statue pillar Considerably 'larger than
Naqada
architecture from their size
his sed-festival,
statues of a king or a god,
were
standing,
or
seated
life'
frequent
Egyptian
in
was dictated by the surrounding building. They
were never purely decorative, but special significance and, like
all
were considered
offerings.
They were
the facades
and colonnades of
at
Karnak, Ramesseum, Medinet Habu).
The king
f)
as sphinx: sphinx at Giza,
Amenemhat
statues of Amenhotep
Hermopolis.
III at
bonds of the human dimension, entering the realm of the
were they erected?,
function.
4.30
m
was
also certainly the intention to impress,
away enemies and
The height of
in the
Naqada
II
period (Koptos), to 8
Hawara), and to 20
and Ramesses
II
in the reigns of
(colossi of
Ramesseum). There a)
m
Amenemhat
Ill's
m
in the
pyramid
Amenhotep
III
Memnon, Per-Ramesses,
(early
18th Dynasty in front of the seventh
and eighth pylons, Amenhotep
III
standing in front of
Amenhotep III, mortuary temple; Ramesseum; Akhmim; Memphis; Per-Ramesses; Abu Simbel; Amenhotep III and Tiye, originally from Medinet Habu (?).
the tenth pylon);
c)
Detached colossal statues, standing or seated,
inside or in front of colonnades:
Luxor, Ramesses
Ehnasya el-Medina;
figure in the temple of Hatshepsut.
I
onwards, seen in his structures
Karnak and Abydos, and on pyramid
creates the
15-23.
)
Memnon
Colossi of
Two
seated quartzite statues of the king, 40 cubits
in height, lost, in
wearing a head-doth and crown, the
front of the at
Thebes. Standing beside the
from
quarries
The northern colossus was famous
for a strange acoustic
number
imminent
at
the causeway of his
at El-Lisht, these statues, closely associated
with
Description
Plates
II,
in:
20-22;
after
its
Memnonskolosse,
in:
(
Helck,
Memnon
BeitrageBfll (Wiesbaden 1981);
Memnon: new
218-219; D.D. silifizierten
Klemm
et al.,
32-34; A.
LA IV 23-24; A.H.
am
H.Bowman
slants, in:
in:
GM
example
53 (1981)
et
al.,
The northern
Archaeometry 26 (1984)
Die pharaonischen Steinbriiche des
Kolosse: Heliopolis oder Aswan?, in:
Wooden columns
Gardiner,
Totentempel Amenophis'
Sandsteins in Agypten und die Herkunft der
Column, see also
and
(Cairo 1960);
96 1 ) 9 1 -99; M. Eaton Kraus and
( 1
Beobachtungen an den Memnonkolossen,
colossus of
Borchardt, Die
L.
ZAS 45 1908-09)
25-29; Gerhard Haeny, Untersuchungen
(for
more
of inscriptions of visitors. They are under
The Egyptian Memnon, in: JEA 47
III,
is
in ancient times
phenomenon, which ceased
Bernand, Les inscriptions du Colosse de
B. Fay,
el-Ahmar.
Aswan
threat of collapse.
Bibliography:
E.
at
under Septimus Severus. The statues bear a
restoration
great
estimated
is
Gebel
at
Petrographic examination indicates that likely.
legs of
both statues came
to inscriptions,
quartzite
now Ill's
Queens Tiye and Mutemwiya.
800 tonnes. According the
(21m)
latter
pylon of Amenhotep
1st
the king are the figures of
R. Bianchi,
Statue pillars integrated into the architecture:
from Senwosret
Fragments of a Shattered Visage (Memphis, Term. 1991
Aufstellung der Memnonskolosse,
II.
d) Statues of the king performing a cult act: kneeling
e)
Steine 94-97;
in:
Their weight, excluding the separate bases,
Detached colossal statues, seated or standing:
Karnak
M. Eaton-Krauss, Ramesses-Re who
Klemm, gods,
mortuary temple
are several different types:
Free-standing cult images in a cult building:
Djoser, Userkaf, Biahmu. b)
why and how
Beaux Arts 129 (1987) 97-105;
from
colossal statues increases
Middle Kingdom (Biahmu, at
to act in a protective
Gazette des
in:
baboon
sixth pylon at Karnak);
Bibliography: A. Badawy, Egyptian colossal monoliths:
to frighten
Amun
Less frequent are non-royal colossal statues:
and Amunet (behind the
primarily intended to indicate that the king broke the
divine. There
II
Tanis, Heliopolis.
most cases had some
in
statues,
and supplied with
living entities
precinct,
(Koptos); in some cases
II
mark
'houses of millions of years' (Hatshepsut, Aten
MDAIK 40
Memnon-
(1984) 291-296.
pillar
are not unusual in Egyptian temples
in the
valley temple of Menkaure, and in
pyramid temples of Neferirkare and Neferefre), although they are much more frequent in dwellings (Kahun, El-Lisht, Amarna). In poorer houses they took the
the form of simple upright posts, but in
more
lavish
buildings they appeared in a wide variety of forms, Colossal statues of Thutmosis front of the eighth pylon at
III,
Karnak
Amenhotep
1
and Amenhotep
II
in
colourfully painted
and decorated with sashes and
garlands of plants (known mostly from illustrations).
Column As
Greek architecture, some forms of wooden
in
column were that stone
replicated in stone,
columns
still
and
it
regularly stand
for this reason
is
on a column base
and have an abacus connecting them with the architrave above. Like their
wooden
prototypes,
Karnak, and the temples
at
Buhen, Amada, Semna
at
and Beit el-Wali. Manuel 177-184;
Bibliography: Jequier,
I.E.S.
Edwards, Some early
dynastic contributions to Egyptian architecture,
stone columns
all
53
123-128; Ricke, Bemerkungen
JEA 35 (1949)
in:
77-82.
I
were colourfully painted, usually with representations of plants.
These columns would have been too delicate
support anything heavy but rather stood
column types
independently. The selection of specific
some symbolic connotations (papyrus and
certainly has
= Lower
lotus
to
and
tall
Egypt,
= Upper
lily
=
Egypt, palm
Buto),
but artistic considerations cannot be ruled out.
Half-columns,
i.e.
engaged columns, are
common
diameter of the shaft increases steadily from the base
upwards; the shaft fifth,
above which
itself
has a ridge in the uppermost
a bell-shaped,
is
This type of column
Kingdom onwards,
in the
rounded top with no
attested
is
from the Old
form of wooden examples and
Egyptian architecture (pilaster). They mainly served
depictions.
The only stone examples
to create the impression of the facade of a building or
Akhmenu
(dating from around 1480 BC),
door decorated with columns. Examples are found
tomb, that of
in
columns with
precinct of Djoser (channelled capital), at the
in the
Hathor shrine
Akhmenu
and on the
a cleat
temple of Hatshepsut,
(facade of the nine-niched sanctuary)
front of the
rock temple of Asklepios
Many
Athribis (palm capital). cult niches
in the
at the
in the
Bibliography (general): Perrot, L'Egypte 539-587; Borchardt, Pflanlilies
of Ancient Egypt,
Egypt 1917, 1-20; Jequier, Manuel 167-274;
LA V 343-348;
P.
Janosi
in:
and
Ancient
D. Arnold,
Dieter Kurth, Die Dekoration der
Saulen im Pronaos des Tempels von Edfu (Wiesbaden 1983).
in
c)
(for illustrations of several types of
on page It
columns
ii,
Minoan
opposite
title
palaces
Palm columns represent
bound with
(c.
hangs
at
column, see
frontis-
It is
Manuel
A
top,
been found
circular abaci have
shape of the abacus elsewhere
which
at
Kingdom Tanis; the
always square. Distinctly
is
from both palm and channelled columns are the
of Djoser,
in the
whose
free
entrance colonnade in the precinct
ends are formed
reed
like vertical
matting, interpreted as a protective edge in the shape of ribs.
The
earliest
examples of true free-standing
pyramid
not clear whether the channelled, engaged
monolithic palm columns of granite are in the
at
the precinct of Djoser represent the stems of
temple of Djedefre. They are frequently found
in the
pyramid temples of Sahure, Djedkare and Unas
Heracleum giganteum; nor
their production, see
there a clear connection
channelled (protodoric) columns or with
later
multi-faced pillars with an abacus. Octagonal forms
be counted as pillars, whereas those with 32 sides are counted as columns (Buhen,
many
16, 20,
Fig.).
may
24 and,
There are
genuinely channelled examples like the shafts of
is
loop of cord
triple
conifers with the bark removed, with cleat capitals, or
with
not
palm fronds
shaft with
a
growing up from the
is
is
one
1600 BC).
the front below the central frond. Old
columns with
palm
page):
L.)
several circles of cord.
spur walls found
a)
1360 BC).
in the in
193-196.
different
The following types of stone column can be distinguished piece
(c.
and
Bibliography: Borchardt, Pflanzensdule 56-57; Jequier,
{Phoenix dactylifera
The water
Surer
found
whether they have any connection with the similar
columns found
at
Assasif at Thebes.
Saule, in: Helck,
clear
Amenemhat
are
smaller examples exist on
and door frames of Late Period tombs
zensaule; W.D. Spanton,
of
and structures of reed matting. The
lightweight tents
capital.
less
wooden supports
b) Tent-pole columns imitate the
(for
column manufacture). Palm
columns become frequent again from the 18th Dynasty onwards, being embellished with new elements.
Examples are found
at the
tomb of Djehutyhotep
at
El-Bersha (12th Dynasty), Tanis (usurped from the
Middle Kingdom
(?), height more than 11 m), Soleb, Ehnasya el-Medina, Amarna (tombs), the Hibis
Greek Doric columns. However, the Egyptian examples
Sesebi,
lack the echinus below the wide capital
temple (El-Kharga), Antaeopolis and Philae. In the
many
of
them having
a vertical
and do not
band of
along the front (entasis). The relationship
is
swell,
inscriptions also dubious
because the Egyptian examples date back to the 3rd-2nd millennia, while
the
earliest
Greek examples date
palace at
Amarna,
the underside of
palm
leaves
decorated in the cloisonne technique, with gilded
between the
inlaid green faience
Graeco-Roman buildings they
and red paste designs. In
are also
shown with
dates
temple
and an obliquely chequered band
at the top.
of Mentuhotep, the tombs at Beni Hasan, the 12th
frequent in composite capitals.
Many palm columns
from the 7th century BC. Examples are Dynasty funerary structures (
Wahka
I),
at
El-Lisht and
at the
Qaw el-Kebir
the temple of Hatshepsut, the temple of
Ptah
the Old
and Middle Kingdoms were re-used
the Delta
and
in the
mosques
is
fillets
in Cairo.
Palmettes are of
in temples in
Column
54
W.M. Flinders
Bibliography:
9-10, Plate
Amarna (London
Petrie, Tell el
1894)
Borchardt, Pflanzensauk 44-49; Edouard Naville.
6;
Bubastis (London 1891) 11-13 (BM)49;E.Chassinat,Aproposd'une tete
en gres rouge du
roi
Didoufre,
in:
Monuments
Piot 25
(
192 1 -22
55; Jequier, Manuel 196-201; Pierre Montet, Les nouvelks fouilles de
Tanis (1929-1932) (Paris 1933)
63-69,95-101.
Dynasty) in
it
(Khonsu,
Fig.).
and
six,
(Nymphaea
rounded
buds) tied together
at the neck, the
petals
Fig.).
drooping stems of some
Unlike papyrus columns, their shafts are straight
way down
New Kingdoms and later again
Old and
Examples
exist in the
Beni Hasan,
at
in the
tomb
capitals are attested
New Kingdom,
all
frequent in the
is
in the Late Period.
of Ptahshepses, at
Memphis,
pyramid complex of Senwosret
palace of Apries and
at the
the
ground. This type
to the
in depictions.
III,
True open-lotus
from depictions dating
to the
at
Thebes
Ramesses
the temple of
in
I
Karnak, III
at at
Bibliography: Jequier,
Manuel 227-30; Borchardt, Pflanzensauk 35-36.
and
very small florets hanging down on the shaft (Ptahshepses,
the
Examples are found
relief scenes.
the hypostyle hall at
in
shaft
inscriptions,
Karnak, and the temple of Khonsu.
later also eight closed lotus flowers
lotus L., white lotus with
plump
'houses of millions of years' of Sety
Medinet Habu, of four,
types of column
squat,
its
The smooth surfaces bear
rows of cartouches and in the
and Abydos,
d) Lotus columns with a closed capital represent bundles
common
one of the most
is
Egypt, being distinctive by
Old to
but the earliest surviving examples
g) Papyrus
columns with open
plain shaft exist as in depictions
element
is
(campaniform) and
from the early 18th Dynasty, and
form of actual columns
Thutmosis
capital
lamp stands from the Middle Kingdom,
III
in buildings
onwards
Karnak). The papyrus
(at
shape of the
reflected in the
in the
from the reign of
shaft,
with a
slight
hint at the three-cornered section of the stem of the
papyrus plant, while the capital
is
decorated with rows of
open papyrus umbels. The type was preferred
in free-
standing kiosks and the central naves of hypostyle halls
are from the Ptolemaic period as part of composite capitals
(plants 'opening' along the path of the god).
with numerous petals arranged in several layers.
found
in the
hall of
Karnak, at the Ramesseum,
at
Medinet Habu, at
Edfu and
at
Philae.
Blue lotus with pointed petals and buds caerulea L.)
columns found
(in
in
a
{Nymphaea
found very occasionally in open-lotus
is
New Kingdom tombs
Thebes);
at
it is
the temple of
also
at
1
5-20, 24, 26; Jequier,
Manuel 201-21 1; Borchardt, Pflanzensauk 3-16.
Manuel 220-227; Borchardt, Pflanzensauk
37-43.
Papyrus columns {Cyperus papyrus
capital resemble the lotus to eight plant
columns
petals are also found (the plant cannot be identified as an
L.)
with a closed
having bundles of
in
stems (abacus,
Fig.;
Soleb,
Fig.).
and may perhaps be the wild banana: Musa
Ensete ventricosum or Kaempferia aethiopica). as the
Upper Egyptian plant
tombs of the 18th Dynasty
retracting foot, which
made
leaves.
Another feature
papyrus plants
The
surrounded by up
fitted in
later
Senwosret
between the stems
capitals
which appeared
all
over the Near East in the 10th
in the
pyramid temples of
appearance of the true Ionic capital in the 6th century
and
barque station of Amenhotep
at
Soleb, in tombs
and
at
at
Amarna, I
at
III
in
Qurna,
at
the at
BC. Stone
lily
capitals
Ptolemaic period,
do not appear
when
the form
until the
Bibliography: Borchardt, Pflanzensauk 18-24; Jequier,
263-271;
D. Arnold,
New
called 'lotus-bud').
1997)20-28.
Papyrus columns with a closed capital and smoothed late (start of the 19th
i)
ornament
in:
Memory of Cyril Aldred (London
Cyperus columns. Borchardt
'palmette'
Manuel
evidence for liliform capitals in Egypt,
Chief of Seers. Egyptian Studies in
appearing
Egypt
only four flower petals are attested to in the Late Period
Manuel 211-220; Borchardt, Pflanzensauk
capital; despite
in
either multi-layered
by stonemasons' sketches.
25-34; Edouard Naville, Bubast is (London 1891) 11-13,49 (columns
and
is
or a composite capital. Earlier stone forerunners with
Hermopolis.
Bibliography: Jequier,
shaft
may be some
connection with the proto-Ionic (Aeolian and Timora)
examples occur
'house of millions of years' of Sety
f
as part of composite capitals
kiosk). There
century BC, themselves likely to be connected to the
Amenemhat III, at Bubastis (now in E 10589), in the Akhmenu, in the Luxor
Elephantine,
on one of the
represented in
pyramid temple of
temple, in the
Medamud
in the capital.
wood (canopy,
is
ensete,
appears
in the
III
the Louvre,
bundles of three smaller
of
III. It
It
examples are
earliest
Sahure;
is
to five pointed
in raised relief
heraldic pillars of Thutmosis
However, they differ from them by the noticeably is
and two or four curled
h) Lily columns with a red calyx
iris,
six
at
Examples are
in the hypostyle
Philae.
Bibliography: Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire, Plates
e)
Khonsu,
Bibliography: Jequier,
fragment of a column of the temple of
Arensnuphis
colonnade of Luxor temple,
identifies the plant in the
as Cyperus alepocuroides (Rottb.)
Column manufacture True cyperus columns' do not
motif frequently appears
in
exist,
55
but the palmette
composite capitals
in
combination with papyrus motifs. Bibliography:
L Borchardt, Die Cyperussaule, in: ZAS 40 (1902) 26-49.
j)
Hathor
k)
Composite capitals
pillars
Column
base, see a/so base, plinth Column bases can be divided into four broad which range from short and wide flat,
to tall
types,
and narrow:
a)
with an angled or rounded edge (mainly used in the
Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom under plant-
bundle columns and multi-faced
pillars),
rounded
off at the top, c)
off at the top
bottom
like
a
tall,
rounded
b)
tall,
and
cushion (especially under smoothed
papyrus columns of the Ramesside period, many bearing inscriptions) and d) cylindrical, sometimes with an angled or bevelled edge (especially in Graeco-
Roman the
buildings). Bases are manufactured as part of
paving and many
blocks.
The bases of
are carved as part of paving
particularly large
columns consist
of several blocks fitted together. Shafts are in instances fitted into the base. score
marks
On some
Manufacture of column bases by means of working the rough surface of paving blocks (after
J.
bases there are
Column manufacture
for fitting the shaft.
Monolithic stone Bibliography: Jequier,
Jacquet)
some
columns were manufactured
at
stone
Manuel 173-174.
quarries and delivered complete. According
to Isler, as
with obelisks, the outlines were marked horizontally on to the surface of the rock and then
hammered out of the rock, wooden
with constant monitoring using semi-circular templates.
2^
,j£k
were
built
offset
Columns made of limestone or sandstone up out of drums and half-drums (with regularly
touch joints) and joined together with cramps. The a
bossed
column had been
erected.
outer surface was after the
L
left in
column base and on
the
state
and dressed only
Markings scored on the
abacus provided
a basis for
:
a
Column base
types. A: angled off at the top; B:
(Middle Kingdom to
New Kingdom);
C:
dowelled together (temple of Amenhotep
rounded off
at the
top
base constructed of blocks
III at
Soleb);
D-E:
vertical
and
tapered bases of composite columns of the Graeco-Roman period; F:
cushion-shaped base (Ramesside period)
Finishing of columns constructed of rough blocks in the
Karnak
(after U.
Holscher)
first
court at
56
Column, proportions of
measurements. The manufacture of a palm column made
Column, proportions of
of wood
The proportions of Egyptian columns of the same type
is
illustrated in a
Theban tomb.
AEM 82-83, 141ff.;
Bibliography:
Theban tomb: LD
III
R. Engelbach,
An experiment on
the accuracy of shaping a monolithic
column,
in:
ASAE
26, la; Clark,
28 (1928) 144-152; M.
monolithic carving,
in:
MDAIK 48
(
Eisler,
The technique of
1992) 45-55.
fluctuate,
their
having a height of between
five
and seven times
diameter (in contrast to Greek architecture, where
their height
between eight and ten times
is
their
diameter), thus giving the particular style of a period.
The columns of the Old Kingdom and those from the Ptolemaic period onwards are particularly slender,
whereas particularly stocky ones date from the reign of
The spacing between individual columns
Ramesses
III.
fluctuates
between one and two-and-a-half times
diameter. There relationship
is
likely to
their
have been some kind of
between the proportions of columns and the
space between them, but the nature of this
is
difficult to
determine without precise structural measurements. The following
shows the relationship between
list
diameter (D) and Massive capitals constructed of blocks from the hypostyle hall and kiosk of Taharqa at Karnak (after
S.
total height (including
maximum
column base
and abacus):
Clark)
Palm columns
7D 8D 5D 6D 6D
Sahure, pyramid temple
Unas, pyramid temple
Amenhotep
III,
Soleb
Roman, Philae
Roman, Kalabsha Closed-papyrus columns
6-7 D
Sahure, pyramid temple
Niuserre, pyramid temple
Thutmosis
III,
5.5-6.0
Akhmenu, Karnak
5.5 or 6
Amenhotep
III,
Luxor
6.8
Amenhotep
III,
Soleb
5.3
D D D D
Smoothed open-papyrus columns
5.0
D D
4.5
D
Roman, Medinet Habu
8.0
Roman, Dendur
5.2
D D
Karnak, hypostyle
5.2
hall
Ramesseum Ramesses
III,
Medinet Habu
Composite columns
Bibliography: Vitruvius, Architecture
III,
Chapters 2-3; Jequier,
Manuel 174-175.
Composite
capital
The
composite capitals, made of wood and
earliest
decorated with colourful inlays and sashes, appeared on
canopies and kiosks, as depicted
Kingdom. The palace
at
in
tombs of the New
Amarna was
furnished with
papyrus columns of stone decorated with a wreath of
hanging ducks, closed columns with garlands of lotus +
4m
Construction drawing for a Ptolemaic column
at Philae
and a frieze of uraei, and also an (otherwise unknown) type of column with vines. Composite capitals flowers
damage
Construction
basic
form of
57
capitals
rr
single-stemmed
four-stemmed
eight-stemmed
vertical additions to capitals
2 rows
3
4 rows
rows
5 rows
decorative elements
closed
papyrus
palmette
Orders of capitals. Upper: the form of basic capital; middle: vertical additions; lower: individual
were translated into stone from the 26th Dynasty onwards (Hibis temple, El-Kharga). Their use flourished in buildings of the
Graeco-Roman period (Deir el-Medina,
appearing as palmettes, papyrus umbels, lotus
Fig.),
flowers
and
lilies
arranged on a bell-shaped capital core,
either singly or in four- to eight-fold sections, arranged layer
upon
in vines,
layer, in
two
to five rows. Spaces
were covered
bundles of dates or ears of grain. A few examples
bear a wreath of Greek acanthus leaves on the lower part
floral
decorative elements
appear as half-columns (pilaster). The lowest part of the
column
shaft
is
smoothed, so that the bundled section
is
visible only at the neck. Bibliography:
Many examples
in Description I— IV; Prisse d'Avennes,
17-20, 25, 47, 58-61; Jequier, Manuel 230-274;
Histoire, Plate
Borchardt, Pflanzensaule; M. Haneborg-Llihr, Les chapiteaux
com-
posites etude typologique, stylistique et statistique, in: Amosiades:
Melanges
offerts
auprofesseur Claude Vandersleyen (Louvain-la-Neuve
1992) 125-152.
of a composite capital (Philae). The lotus capitals and
newly created In
all,
lily
capitals are not true
composite
G. Jequier distinguished 27 forms.
capitals
shaped
on columns like a
Hathor
Some composite
at
capitals.
The composite
Philae carry a raised abacus
capital or depicting a Bes figure.
capitals in
Alexandrian architecture
Construction
damage
Egyptian architecture can provide construction
many examples
damage which occurred during
and necessitated
either
abandonment of the
of
building,
very costly repairs or the
project concerned. Sagging of
some
Construction plans
58
the construction of the Bent
masonry during meant
that
to
it
m
be covered with a 15
Pyramid
deep stone
mantle, the western burial chamber had to be propped up
with 12 transverse to
be reduced, giving
efforts, the
of
beams and
Pepy
II
it its
pyramid had had
to
the angle of the slope
had
'bent' shape. Despite all these
to
be abandoned. The pyramid
be covered with a stone mantle,
6.5
m
temple
in the
stone quarries
drawn and very
at
Sheikh Said. Two carefully
detailed plans have survived, one of the
tomb of Ramesses IV (Papyrus Turin 1885) and the other tomb of Ramesses IX (on an ostrakon now in
of and the
Museum
the Egyptian
probably served as
CG
25184), but these
illustrative plans.
Stonemasons drew
at Cairo,
onto the surface of the stone using a
1:1 scale,
as
was the
core masonry. That
case with medieval building practices; examples are the
of Amenemhat III at Dahshur was abandoned due to the
constructional drawings of the profile of a vault in the
sagging of the substratum and the collapse of the interior
tomb of Ramesses IV
accommodation. In many pyramids, the casing blocks
on the pylon
were damaged by the subsidence of the (heavier) centre
walls at the temple of Edfu).
thick, to prevent the cracking of the
at
in the Valley of the Kings, a
column
Philae, or a cavetto cornice on one of the
of the pyramid and the outer surface had to be patched
Bibliography: L. Borchardt, Altagyptische Werkzeichnungen,
with thousands of stones.
ZAS
Extensive errors in measurement have been observed in the
upper part of the Khafre pyramid. The eastern edge
of the pyramid of Sahure deviated from true by
1
.88
m.
at
34 (1896) 69-76; N. de Garis Davies,
Sheikh Said,
E.A.E.
in:
R.
D.
in:
Helck,
AEM
the Egyptian
Arnold, Bauplane,
Stadelmann, Baubeschreibung,
LA
in:
architectural sketch
Ancient Egypt 1917, 21-25; Clark,
Reymond, The Mythical Origin of
(Manchester 1969);
Bibliography: Arnold, Building 234-245.
An
in: I
and H.M. Stewart, The Gurob Shrine Papyrus,
LA
I
46-59;
Temple
661-663;
636-37; H.S. Smith in:
JEA 70 (1984)
54-64; Arnold, Building 7-10, 22, 47. For the development of plans in general: to
Henry A. Millon,
Ed.,
The Renaissance from Brunelleschi
Michelangelo. The Representation of Architecture, Exhibition
Catalogue (Washington 1995).
Control notes Stone blocks in Egyptian buildings frequently bear inscriptions,
marks or symbols, applied during con-
struction either by chiselling or being painted on in black
or red to enable construction managers to check the rate of performance or to help craftsmen with orientation in their work:
Small pieces of stone used to repair casing blocks on the pyramid
Amenemhat
III at
or'
Dahshur
Construction plans, see also architectural depictions, planning Although Egyptian draftsmen were capable of producing architectural depictions, tectural plans
the
in
it
is
doubtful whether archi-
modern sense
existed at
all.
Approximately 25 drawings have survived, but these are really only
rough pocket-sized sketches on ostraka
(flakes
of limestone), occasionally bearing measurements as an
aide-memoire
for the
workmen.
It is
more likely that work
was carried out on the basis of verbal descriptions (together with measurements) of the type in 'sacred
handed down
books' in the temple inscriptions of the
Ptolemaic period. Such architects' books continued to
be used
in classical
architectural plan
is
antiquity.
a sketch 1.6
The
m
largest surviving
long of an
unknown
Sketch plan of a temple found on the wall of a quarry
(Middle Egypt)
at
Sheikh Said
Corbelled vault
a)
Team marks. Like markings used by present-day stone-
masons
baseline'. Rather
group of persons
in that they also stand for the
a pointed
workmen using
hammer
or coarse colour brushes). These
Roman
marques sur
Terrassen 85-94, Plates 39-42;
Jaritz.
les pierres
Bibliography: Arnold, Building 17-18.
coarse tools (such as
marks, up to 100 cm, were used until Bibliography:
the zero level was
case of pyramids this was the courtyard paving.
mainly imitations of hieroglyphs or invented symbols illiterate
level,
taken as the intended level of the paving (neferu); in the
responsible for the production of a stone, these are
applied by
than the bedrock
59
de construction de
V.
Depth marks. These were applied on wall and rock
surfaces while
I,
still
rough and waiting
to
be worked. The
stonemasons were given directions concerning the depth
Dobrev, Les
necropole de Pepi
la
e)
times.
to
in:
which smoothing was
to
black mark.
Many
be applied by small rectangles
measurement and leaving
inserted to the required
BIFAO 96 (1996) 103-142.
a
unfinished walls are found bearing
b) Transportation marks. Written in transit by literate
hundreds of marks arranged
supervisors, these are found on the roughly finished sides
different
of blocks, in most cases appearing as hieratic formulae
appear prominent by sliding a piece of red-painted board
such
as: 'Year 12,
Winter month
2,
Day
6.
Brought from
method, places
to
in parallel rows.
colour strips used by dentists in biting
tests.
Such annotations, including the transport date, give
Bibliography: W. Flinders Petrie, The Labyrinth, Gerzeh
important information concerning the termini post quern
(London 1912)
Corbelled vault
Bibliography relating to a) and b): M. Verner, Zu den 'Baugraffiti mit
Ceiling construction
Datumsangaben' aus dem Alten Reich,
from the 2nd
Miroslav Verner, Abusir
II.
Melanges Gamal Eddin
in:
Lisht, Vol. 3
(New York
becoming ever
1990);
between them
Baugraffiti der Ptahschepses-Mastaba
(Prague 1992); Miroslav Verner, Abusir
Khentkaues (Prague, 1995) 43-54;
III,
common
in
to 4th Dynasties, in
on the long sides of
The Control Notes and
Felix Arnold,
Team Marks. The South Cemetery of
and Mazghuneh
54; Arnold, Building 45.
They were used by the
construction managers to check performance.
Mokhtar (Cairo 1985) 339-346;
to
or the like over the surface to be treated, similar to the
the quarry by workers of the 3rd district of Heliopolis.'
for the erection of a building.
Using a
be smoothed were made
is
a
room
Egyptian architecture
which rows of headers
project in a step formation,
closer to each other, until the distance
bridged. Stone corbelling exists in burial
The Pyramid Complex of
Zivie, Deir Chelouit
75-81. 15
c)
Positioning marks. In complicated projects, or ones
where space was
limited, such as burial
chambers and
their stone roofs, or the golden shrine of
Tutankhamun,
the parts of the construction were fitted together above
ground, as a
run, then
trial
the correct order. a
A
numbered and taken
inside in
simple system was used consisting of
numbered sequence,
detailed indications such as
'second layer, east side, middle', or symbols showing
side of a joint or
how
ankh sign on each
the blocks fitted together, such as an
where two blocks met
at a corner.
Similar in nature are the central crosses or broken lines
/
used to show the precise point of connection between
sections
of columns, pillars with their bases, or
architraves on the abacus. Bibliography: Arnold, Building 18-21.
d) Height marks. These were frequently used in the
pyramid precincts measurement,
in the
of
the
Old
Kingdom,
form of encircling marks
to to
aid
show
the horizontal or vertical orientation lines (construction shaft
in
the lower
pyramid of Zawyet
el- Aryan).
Section through the corbelled vault of the northern burial
Horizontal lines were often accompanied by directional
the Bent Pyramid; at the top, access to the west
arrows and notes of distances such as
left,
'1
cubit above the
the chimney'
chamber of
chamber system; on
the
Core masonry
60
chambers of tombs of the 4th Dynasty and Meidum. Other examples
m in area,
(5.26 x 7.97
at
Dahshur
Bent Pyramid
m high), the Red Pyramid m high) and (ascending gallery 46.71 m long,
16.48
of Sneferu (4.18 x 8.35 the
are in the
pyramid of Khufu
m
in area, 14.67
m high). False barrel vaults were created in the New
8.50
Kingdom by carving out the protruding corbelled ledges, thus converting them into vaults (temple of Hatshepsut and used
that of in
Sety
at
I
Abydos). Brick corbelled vaults are
Upper Egyptian tombs from the 2nd Dynasty
(necropoleis of
Naga el-Deir and El-Amra) and
are also
N. Swelim,
A
cores of
AEM
184-185; Arnold, Building 184-188;
reason for the corbelled roof,
masonry was the
fill
in
the centre, examples being found at the pyramids of
Senwosret
I,
Amenemhat
to
slipping. In
in:
JSSEA 14 ( 1984) 612.
prevent
by restricting the use of valuable materials
cm
to the outer
the valley temple of Giza), but
Khafre and
rare
in the
some pyramids were
above a nucleus of rock (Khufu, Khafre, II).
Interior
masonry normally consisted of
stone, individual pieces in
some
cases being
huge, although the majority were of moderate
and irregular gaps were frequently insertion of smaller stones earlier structures
filled
Corner of the pyramid of Senwosret core with radial supporting walls
1.5
m, was less
were
in place.
(valley
I
at
Abydos).
Gypsum was
used
into holes cut into the surface of blocks
They were
first
used
to fix the
once they
in the 4th
Dynasty
temple of Khafre). During the Old Kingdom
their
use was restricted to parts of the structure thought to be
vulnerable (architrave); their usage extensive in the Middle
became more
Kingdom, when they were applied
Wide
by the
in the cores (re-use
of blocks), an example being the ninth pylon filled
measuring
Bronze cramps are
and mortar; material from
was often re-used
which was completely
size.
in
I).
Unas, Chapelle Rouge, Tanis, Iseum). Stone cramps are
cramps
was
and New Kingdoms cramps of wood. They were usually
(Khafre, copper or bronze, weighing 20-25 kg,
The use of an outcrop of limestone
inside a core
made
in length; the longest,
also rare (Sety
rough-hewn
construction elements from
Karnak (Sheshonq
at
casing, the core being built of materials locally available.
Senwosret
the
the building. In the Middle
common
erected
II.
Egypt they were mainly dovetail cramps, often
were predominantly
Transport costs in masonry construction were minimised
at
and Senwosret
Anchors of wood, bronze or stone, inserted between two blocks
used
at
II
Cramps, dowelling (connecting blocks)
30-50
(examples are
some cases stabilised by interspersing of made of large blocks radiating out from
with walls
Core masonry
Harmakhis temple
many mastabas and pyramids were
bearing the cartouche of the monarch responsible for
widely found in Egypt. Bibliography: Clark,
The
constructed of brick covered by a stone casing. Interior
at
Karnak,
with talatat.
I,
showing the casing and the central
Copper cramps
in the architraves
of the valley temple of Khafre
at
Giza
Cult temple, statue temple
casing of the pyramids (core
in the overall outer
masonry, Fig.) and blocks were connected not only in the
some
direction of the wall, but also cross-wise; in
instances several were fitted side by side (Augustus
kiosk,
Frequently small pieces of
Fig.).
filling
stone were
fastened in place with cramps and repairs on vertical walls
sometimes
were
held
columns and
Architraves,
in
place
pillars were often secured
Seti
112-213; H. Frankfurt, The Cenotaph of
atAbydos (London 1933),
H. Carter and A. Gardiner, The the Turin Papyrus,
in:
tomb of Ramesses IV
JEA 4 ( 1917) 149-158;
J.
as
compared with
Dorner, Uberlegungen
zur Fassadengliederung der grofien Mastabagraber aus der
MDAIK 47
in:
(
1
.
Dynastie,
1991 ) 81-92; Arnold, Building, 10, 251-252; Elke Roik,
Das Ellenmafi-system im Alten Agypten (Hamburg
1993).
Cult pyramid, fca-pyramid, satellite pyramid,
secondary pyramid, subsidiary pyramid From
protuberances on the upper side of the abacus.
AEM
Bibliography: Richard Lepsius, Die alt-aegyptische Elle (Berlin 1865);
by cramps.
with vertical cylindrical pins or with hemispherical
Bibliography: Clark,
61
Plate 8 (stone dowel); Jaritz, Terrassen,
the reign of Sneferu, a small secondary pyramid
becomes part of the example
is
royal
pyramid complex. The
Senwosret
that of
I. It
latest
stood within the inner
36-37, Plate 26 (stone dowel); Arnold, Building 124-128; Golvin,
enclosure wall either on the south side or in front of the
Karnak 113-114.
south-east corner of the slope
main pyramid. The angle of the
always 63°; the length of the base and the height
is
Crypt
were
A
main pyramid. The dimensions of the inner rooms were
chamber
secret
in
a temple, accessible only via a
hidden entrance in the floor or a rather
uncommon
While they are
wall.
Middle and
in the
New Kingdoms,
they are found particularly in late temples. The largest
system of crypts
that in the
is
foundations and walls of
Dendera, where crypts were used
the temple at
for the
storage of cult images and the observance of secret
at
Medinet Habu,
the
pyramid temple
Qasr el-Sagha and Sesebi; el-Shelwit, Dendera,
Month
rites.
Buhen, the temple of Ramesses
Early examples are at
late
Occasionally the crypt
of Senwosret
I,
571-577;
in:
Hommages
Francois
1951),
Daumas
(Montpellier 1986)
du temple d'Opet Karnak (Paris
C. Traunecker, Les cryptes
1975); Silvie Cauville, Le temple de Zivie, Deir Chelouit
Bibliography: Satellite
Dendera (Cairo 1990) 54-59;
it is
known
of
measure used
in
of the 3rd Dynasty or was
it
intended
Mark
Lehner, The Pyramid
Tomb of Hetep-heres and the
Pyramid ofKhufu (Mainz 1985) 74-85; Arnold, Amenemhet
cult
room
of a temple or
tomb with an
imaginary sphere beyond occupied by the deity or a cult target
was indicated by
a false
door, a niche for a statue or simply by a scene depicting the
owner of the tomb or temple. The place of offering lay
in front of the cult target.
The whole scheme of texts and
decoration was directed towards the cult target, which either lay
on the
axis of the temple or
reached by an offset
tomb
or else
Henry
was
axis.
G. Fischer, The Orientation of Hieroglyphs
128—
(New York
Egyptian
the time of the Unification onwards,
at first to
have measured 51.89-53.18 cm;
Kingdom,
was subdivided
it
measured 52.3-52.5 cm.
into seven hand-breadths, each
equivalent to 7.5 cm, each consisting of four fingers
of 1.875 cm.
this
represent a revival
1977) 41-47.
unit
then, from the Old It
it
Bibliography: Arnold, Wandrelief 128; Eigner, Grabbauten
34-36.
From
architecture.
cult places
99-103; Janosi, Pyramidenanlagen 280-287.
III
133;
Cubit The normal
tomb
deceased person. The
823-830; C. Traunecker, Cryptes decorees, cryptes
III
not known; did
is
No
The function of
for a £a-statue?
The ultimate
Plate 42; Arnold, Qasr es-Sagha 12-13; C. Traunecker, Krypta, in:
LA
of the south
Cult target
Bibliography: Louis A.Christophe, Karnak-Nord III (Cairo
Helck,
kind of structure
Kom Ombo,
created by the layout.
anepigraphes,
adequate for the burial of a statue.
or inscriptions have been found.
Opet temple and El-Tod.
no more than an unused space
is
at best
crypts are found at Deir
Dendur, Kalabsha,
precinct (Karnak),
III
being 1/5 of the base length of the
identical, often
From
the
New Kingdom
onwards,
many
Cult temple, statue temple, see also pyramid
temple The
front
section
of a
pyramid temple,
usually
dedicated to the cult of the statues of the king. At the
Bent Pyramid of Sneferu, the valley,
cult
temple stood in the
and from Khufu onwards the
cult
temple was
cubit rods have survived, mainly as votive offerings or
situated in front of the east side of the pyramid. At the
grave goods. Another unit occasionally used was the
transition from the 4th to the 5th
nby, measuring
67-8 cm, and there
is
a single occur-
rence of the foot as a unit of measurement in the
mastaba of Ptahshepses.
Dynasty
it
was
combined with the newly added mortuary temple, and
it
becomes part of the new pyramid temple, which predominates from then on. The cult temple incorporates
Cupola
62 a
Per-weru
hall, a
transverse corridor five
courtyard with pillars or columns, a
and the actual
statue
chamber with
chapels for the various manifestations of the king as
Osiris, or as
Bemerkungen
35ff.;
II
Brinks, Grabanlagen,
in:
B.E. Shafer, Ed., Temples of Ancient
on the barrel vault which was constructed
and Middle
(Amarna, El-Lisht). in the
1997)31-85.
Domed
walling was installed in kilns and in cupola-shaped cellars
Egypt (Ithaca
103,107; D. Arnold, Royal cult complexes of the Old
Kingdoms,
relieve pressure
below (Thebes, Abydos, Aniba and Soleb).
king with the red or white crown.
Bibliography: Ricke,
The inside of private brick pyramids of the New Kingdom was hollowed out into a cupola shape in order to of stone.
the It
first
was
settlement of the 21st Dynasty at
also used as a cap over the hollow spaces
foundation blocks of cellular constructions
at
Defenna, Naukratis and Memphis.
Cupola Cupolas
Cupolas were constructed of concentric rows of bricks
made
of reeds are represented in early hiero-
From
glyphs (such as the reed hut of Min).
Dynasty onwards, the form was used stores (diameter in the the Old cult
New Kingdom up
Kingdom mastabas
it
chambers and serdabs, or
was used
to
the 1st
in circular to 8
grain m). In
as roofing over
cap the mouths of shafts
(Abydos, Dendera). One example
at
Giza
Reconstruction of the cult pyramid of Senwosret
I
is
or stones in a corbel construction (corbelled vault) or
concentric rows of headers angled
isolated case has
(pendentive or support cupola) in a at
Dra Abu el-Naga.
pyramid of Queen Neferu
in the
the
An
been observed as a corner spandrel
constructed
(top), with the
down towards
centre with their outer edges supported on stones.
foreground
New Kingdom tomb
Curved wall Bibliography: Auguste Mariette, Abydos II (Paris 1869), Plate 66; John Garstang,£/-Arafra/i
(London 1901),
egyptienne coupole sur pendentifs, Clark,
AEM
Brick vaults
185-186; Junker, Giza
and domes
in the
Plate 36; H. Pieron, in:
III
Un tomBeau
BIFAO 6 (1908) 173-177;
26-28,
Giza necropolis,
V, Fig. 3; A.
in:
Badaway,
Abdel-Moneim Abu-
Bakr, Excavations at Giza 1949-1950 (Cairo 1953); Spencer, Brick Architecture 126; Brinks, Kuppel, in: Helck,
LA
III
882-884.
63
Curved wall, see also wavy wall Curved walls are attested from the reign of Sekhemkhet
onwards and were
in
11- 13th
frequent use in the
Dynasty. Brick walls are often not straight, curving instead in a snakelike (sinoid) fashion
and half
a brick
wide. They were usually used in short-term enclosures
surrounding a construction or
site,
incomplete cult buildings
tombs and similar structures. Having greater
resistance than straight walls, they were used particularly as sand-breaks.
Some pyramids
of the 12th and 13th
Dynasties were also enclosed by carefully laid walls, up to 1.05 at
m
wavy
wide (cenotaph of Senwosret
III
Abydos, Mazghuna, an unknown king of the 13th
Dynasty
at
Saqqara).
It
may have been
for a religious
or symbolic reason; G. Jequier believes this representation of a primitive Bibliography:
Jequier,
woven
Manuel 64-65;
may be
a
fence. Clark,
AEM
213;
Jean
Vercoutter, Mirgissa I (Paris 1970) 97-101.
*
Cupola-shaped corbelled vault made of over a
New Kingdom tomb
at
Abydos
mud
brick within a pyramid
Remains of a curved Dynasty
at
Saqqara
wall of the
'* pyramid of an unknown king of the 13th
(after G. Jequier)
D Dabenarti (Dabaynarti) A fortress, covering an area
was extended on of 60 x 230
m,
set
on an
12 x 15
all
m, dedicated
four sides to form a small temple, to Isis of Philae.
island of the Nile opposite Mirgissa, a few kilometres
ration dates to the time of Tiberius.
south of Wadi Haifa. Because of
processional
island position,
its
enclosure wall has no strengthening other than
its
its
deep,
Bibliography:
S.
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in:
JEA
3
167; J.W. Ruby, Preliminary Report of the University of
California Expedition to Dabnarti, in:
Dunham,
to the stone-built
of
its
deco-
the quay, a long
enclosure wall,
through three stone pylon gateways and
finally to the
temple proper. The pronaos, which had four columns
projecting buttress pillars.
(1916)
way leads
Some
From
Kush 12 (1964)
54;
Dows
Uronarti Shalfak Mirgissa, Second Cataract Forts, Vol. 2
with composite capitals, collapsed in 1868 and lost.
offering table
room and
side-rooms and
now
a later sanctuary with several
stairs to the roof.
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
(Boston 1967) 177.
is
Behind was the original sanctuary of Amun, the
II
Two granite naoi
Physkon and Ptolemy XIII
of
still
survived in the sanctuary in the 19th century. The temple
Dabod
was dismantled
A temple originally 15 km south of Aswan. The singleroom chapel dedicated to Amun was erected by Azekheramun, a Meroitic king who reigned in the first half of the 3rd century BC, on top of the remains of a New
Rosales in the centre of Madrid in 1972.
Kingdom temple built
at
ancient Parembole. The building was
and decorated on
later Meroitic
somewhat
a similar design to the
Dakka
chapel on which the temple of
is
in
1960 and re-erected in the Parque de
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 2-6; Gunther Roeder,
Kapellen zweier nubischer Fiirsten in
Debod und Dakke,
(1928) 126-141; W. Schenkel, Debod, J.J.
in:
Helck,
II
and Ptolemy XII Auletes,
—
_,
it
Dahamsha, see El-Mahamid Qibly
Azekheramun 4-
,
,
S
.
J
o
«?
Ptolemy VI
50 ' l
Plan of the
Amun temple at
' I
I
Dabod, dating from the Meroitic period
LA
I
in:
bis
ZAS
63
997-998;
Gere, Sur l'existence d'un temple du Nouvel Empire a Dabod,
Festschrift Hintze (Berlin 1977) 107-113.
based. Later, in the reigns of Ptolemy VI Philometor,
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
Debod
Bab Kalabsche (Cairo 1911-1912) 1-100; Gunther Roeder, Die
in:
Dara
Ramps from 1000
H
1
I
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
2000
quarries
\
m
i.l
a
a
Sneferu
'•}.
1
Housing for workers
Bent Pyramid
65
OK
Northern Stone Pyramid Sneferu
Construction area
V
and workshops
/
mastabas
Statue Temple
OK .Pyramid
mastabas
ofAmeniAamu Amenemhat
OK
III
Amenemhat
'
II
Mastaba of Sa-lset
mastabas
OK
HI Plan of the royal necropolis at Dahshur. OK, Old Kingdom;
of the
walls with a large pylon. The sanctuary contained a
most important
and 12th Dynasties, 40
km
royal necropoleis of the 4th
granite naos. Gau, in his day, saw considerable remains of
south of Cairo, with the Bent
brick buildings surviving around the temple (reminiscent
Pyramid, the Red Pyramid of Sneferu and the brick pyramids of
Amenemhat
III.
Amenemhat
Also
II,
Senwosret
at this site are
badly destroyed, mastabas of the
mud
III
and
the important, but
officials
of these kings.
The valley temples, pyramid towns and residences of the early 4th
and
later 12th
Dynasties probably lay in the
nearby cultivation. Bibliography:
J.
in:
la
Helck,
necropole memphite (Cairo
LA 1 984-987;
R.
Stadelmann
and N. Alexanian, Die Friedhofe des Alien und Mittleren Reiches
S.J.
Dahschur,
in:
of those at the
Wadi
Ramesseum). At
el-Sabu'a, between 1961
stone blocks of Thutmosis discovered, which
III,
the time of
its
removal to
and 1968, some re-used
Sety
I
and Merenptah were
came either from an
earlier structure or
from Kubban. Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 33-36; Gunther Roeder, Der
Tempet von Dakke (Cairo 1930); Gunther Roeder, Die Kapellen zweier
de Morgan, Carte de
1897); D. Wildung, Dahschur,
in
City of Sneferu
MK, Middle Kingdom
Dahshur One
mastabas
MDAIK
nubischer Ftirsten in Debod und Dakke, E.
Bresciani, Dakke, in: Helck,
LA
in:
I
ZAS
63 (1928) 126-141;
988; Hein, Ramessidische
Bautatigkeit 11-12.
54 (1998) 293-317; N. Alexanian and
Seidlmayer, Die Nekropole von Dahschur,
in:
Barta, Abusir
2000
283-304; see individually under the names of kings.
Dakka The
site
of ancient Pselkhis (56
km
south of Aswan)
where, in the reign of the Ethiopian King Ergamenes, a
one-room shrine
to
Thoth of Pnubs (Paotnuphis) was
up, replacing a small temple of the 18th Dynasty.
unusual north-south orientation. To
this
It
set
had an
Ptolemy IV
Philopator added an antechamber and a gate structure.
Ptolemy IX Euergetes
by adding
a
II
View of the Graeco-Roman temple of Dakka
(
after
EC. Gau)
subsequently enlarged the temple
pronaos with two rows of probably three
columns. This structure was further enlarged in the reigns
Dara
of Augustus and Tiberius by the addition, at the rear, of a
The
second sanctuary as well as inner and outer enclosure
monumental tomb of
site,
near Manfalut (35
km
north of Asyut), of the
a ruler called
Khui of the
First
Defenna
66
mud
Intermediate Period, in the form of a
mastaba, 1 36 x 1 46 exterior
The
is
m in size, height
steeply battered
interior
is filled
1
8 m, 40
and the corners
corridor with a barrel vault leads axially through the
up by
1 1
Deir el-Bahari, see (temples of) Hatshepsut,
Mentuhotep, Thutmosis
side-walls of
transverse brick arches.
Deir el-Hagar
A
temple dedicated to the Theban Triad, on the western
The outer covering of the mastaba (whether level with the
edge of Dakhla Oasis.
ground or mounded)
central sanctuary
Bibliography:
is
uncertain.
Ahmed Bey Kamal, Fouilles a
128-134; R. Weill, Fouilles de Dara,
Raymond
Weill,
in:
Dara (Cairo 1958); H.
Dara,
in:
ASAE 46
III
to the burial
chamber walled with limestone beams. The the corridor are shored
(Am) and Defenneh
Flinders Petrie, Nebesheh
(Tahpanhes) (London 1888) 47-61.
are rounded.
with sand. Entering from the north, a
masonry, descending by a sloping ramp
W.M.
Bibliography:
brick
m thick. The
ASAE
12 (1912)
(1947) 323-334;
Beinlich, Dara, in: Helck,
shared offering table room, a small pillared hall and a kiosk-like pronaos.
The temple has cartouches of Nero,
Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The stone building stands inside an enclosure, 43 x 82
LA 1 990-991.
m in size with a
7.30 x 16.20
It is
and two side-chapels opening onto a
m, which is
still
preserved and
has a monumental gateway and a processional way flanked by pillared halls. The restoration of the temple
complex by the Canadian mission
is
exemplary.
Bibliography: H. E. Winlock, Ed., Dakhleh Oasis, Journal of a Camel Trip
Made in 1908 (New York,
1936) 29-33, Plates
7-25;
1
Sauneron,
S.
Notes de Voyage 294-296.
Deir el-Medina l.The settlement This settlement
lies
in a sheltered side-valley of the
Theban necropolis and was
who produced
artists
built for the
craftsmen and
the kings' tombs,
and
their
households, from the early 18th Dynasty onwards.
Within a narrow, rectangular enclosed area (50 x 132 m;
town,
Fig.),
houses
on a
slope, are approximately 70 single-storey
5 x 15 sq
(c.
m in area) built of rough
stone to a
regular plan, which testify to the relative prosperity of
The settlement was enlarged
their inhabitants.
times until
tombs
it
reached
its
ultimate
on the slopes of the
are situated
Bibliography: Bernard Bruyere, Rapport sur
1
20 30 40 50
Medineh (1922-1930), 15
m
D. Valbelle, Deir
Plan and reconstructed section of the
tomb
at
el-Medineh,
Vols. (Cairo in:
Helck,
LA
several
The associated
size.
hill les
(town,
fouilles
Fig.).
de Deir
el
1924-1953). Settlement: I
1028-1034; D. Valbelle,
Dara Le village de Deir el-Medineh,
in: First Intern.
Congress (Cairo 1976)
131-133.
Defenna (Defenneh, Daphnae) An important fortress and military settlement on
the
2.
Temples
Deir el-Medina
is
astonishingly rich in sanctuaries: as
probably founded in the Ramesside period, and later
well as a temple of
Amun and a temple of Hathor built by
enlarged in the reign of Psamtek
Ramesses
Pelusian branch of the Nile near Lake Manzalah.
foreign (especially Greek) soldiers.
main defence bases on the the Babylonians
It
I
It
was
as a garrison for
served as one of the
Sinai border of
Egypt against
and Persians. The central building,
standing inside a rectangular brick enclosure of 385 x
640 m,
is
a fort (43.5 sq
a brick base,
10
construction. The
m site
m
high,
in area) erected
and
built
on top of
using cellular
has not been properly studied.
number
II,
Sety
I
built a
brick temple
to
Hathor with a
of interesting architectonic peculiarities.
It
rises
in steps, following the terrain, to three high terraces.
The
temple of Hathor, begun by Ptolemy IV and completed by
Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy IX Euergetes 'Deir'
el-Medina and
enclosure. Within
is
still
II,
was the actual
stands inside the original brick
a small, particularly carefully built
and decorated sandstone building with
a small pillared
hall,
its taller
rear section being hidden
behind a screen
wall and arranged in the form of an offering table room. Stairs lead
table
room
from there lie
to the roof.
Beyond the
offering
three sanctuaries.
8
Deir el-Medina
67
Set in the rocky path between Deir el-Medina
and the
Valley of the
Queens
is
Bibliography: Description
a small cult grotto of Meretseger. II,
Plates 34-37; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire,
Plate 36; B. Bruyere, Rapports sur les fouilles de Deir el-Me'dineh
I
|B|
70
Hathor
pillar,
composite column and cropped
screen wall in the Deir el-Medina temple, with Plan ot the Ptolemaic temple precinct
Ptolemaic temple precinct
at
at
Deir el-Medina
Deir el-Medina, with brick enclosure wall
a
window and
stairway behind
Deir el-Shelwit
68
(1935-40), Part
2,
FIFAO 20 (Cairo 1948) 99-104.
3-10; Aufrere, L'Eg)fte restituee 152-155;
d'Hathor a Deir el-Medineh,
MIFAO 92
in:
P.
Figs 52-55, Plates
du Bourguet, Le temple
(Cairo, not yet published).
statue chapel beyond. Other
tombs here were
modified or newly
the
Tombs
11-12; M.
The associated necropolis with
many
lies
small, steep brick
on the slope of the
pyramids
in
either
New Kingdom. The
necropolis has not been adequately studied. Bibliography:
3.
built
hill,
(75° slope),
W.M.
Pillet,
Flinders Petrie, Gizeh
and
Rifeh
(London 1907)
Structure et decoration architectonique de
necropole antique de Deir-Rifeh,
61-73; H. Beinlich, Deir Rifeh,
Melanges Maspero
in:
in:
Li
Helck,
I
1
la
(Cairo 1934)
1034.
which stand behind and above the forecourt of the
tombs. The wealthier tombs possess either a
pillared
court or a pillared antechamber, exhibiting interesting individual solutions to architectonic problems. the cult
rooms and
burial
Many
of
chambers are vaulted and
magnificendy painted. les fouilles
de Deir
el-Medineh (1922-1923) (Cairo 1924) to (1934-1935) (Cairo 1937).
of the
Theban
on
sides by a corridor onto
all
necropolis.
It
end
has a sanctuary surrounded
which the side-chapels, the
wabet and
stairs to the
the 13 x 16
m temple are dressed with bosses. The temple
is
surrounded by
roof open. The outside surfaces of
enclosure wall, 58 x 78 m, with
a
at
the
and the
bend of the
justly
famous
The
Nile west of Qena.
temple building proper stands inside a brick enclosure
m
thick, area
280 sq m, dating from the reign of
Shabaka or possibly Roman), with a propylon centre of the north side.
Deir el-Shelwit small, well-preserved temple of Isis at the southern
a city, a necropolis
temple of Hathor
(10
Bibliography: Bernard Bruyere, Rapport sur
A
Dendera The ruins of
The
temple structure, 35 x 81
m
earlier buildings of the Old,
Middle and
and of Nectanebo
I,
in size, replaces several
New Kingdoms
having been erected in 54 BC
reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes.
outstanding
example
architecture in Egypt.
of
the
at
completely preserved,
final,
The structure
late
The famous pronaos with later, in
is
an
temple
Ptolemaic
rows of six Hathor columns was erected
in the
its
four
the reign
a
propylon. Bibliography: D. Wildung, Deir esch-Schelwit,
1034-1035;
in:
Helck,
LA
I
Zivie, Deir Chelouit, 4 Vols; Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 155.
Deir Rifa (Rifeh)
A Middle Kingdom
necropolis of rock tombs, 10
km
south of Asyut. Most interesting from the architectural perspective
is
the
monumental tomb of an unknown
person of the 12th Dynasty, fronted by two octagonal pillars,
followed by a deep entrance hall and a four-
pillared hall, 13.8
x 18.4 m, with a shallow vault and a 20
Plan of the birth house of Hathor-lsis
Upper end of
pillar
Dynasty rock tombs
and projecting roof-shaped ledge from the 12th at
Deir Rifa
Rear of the Hathor temple centre
at
at the
25
temple of Hathor, Dendera
Dendera, with the addorsed
cult
image at
its
Dendera
69
50 -i
100
—
Plan of the temple of Hathor at Dendera, indicating construction periods
of Tiberius, and at the
same time
the inner stone
famous astronomical
now
enclosure was begun, whose front was to have opened
and
on a
temple building
pillared court with
an entrance portal but was never
completed. The birth house of Nectanebo beside the forecourt, was cut through
when
new
(?)
which
the storage of cult objects
room
offering table
Divine Ennead,
its
barque sanctuary
and
is
1 1
is
rooms
the
at the side for
exits to the sacred wells.
barques of Horus of Edfu, Isis
of Dendera).
The
surrounded by a corridor lined with
table
the north-west
is
room
down
to the
in
temple
foundations.
temple I
Cairo).
The sacred
On
the south-west.
lies to
is
lake,
measuring 23 x 31 m,
the southern side of the
the birth house, which
main
was erected by Nectanebo
and dedicated to Harsiese. Ptolemy VI added
hypostyle
a
X surrounded it with columns and finally Augustus gave it a new sanctuary for Hathor- )Isis
hall, then
Ptolemy
(
(screen wall,
A
Fig.).
processional way, flanked by pillared halls, led
from a platform on the bank of the Shay and Thermuthis,
to the
temples of
Nile, past
temple of Hathor. 400
m
to
Stairs
the east of the temple stands a sanctuary of Ihy, the son
lead to the roof of the
of Hathor and Horus, 135 x 135 sq m, never properly
one lying at the centre of the rear wall (wabet, Fig.).
temple where there
complex of crypts, unique
a
Egyptian architecture, which extend
Museum,
lies
further sanctuaries for different cults, the principal
from the offering
1823
To the west, beside the main temple, stood the ka-
followed by the hall of the
Hathor of Dendera, Harsomtus and barque sanctuary
in
chapel of Mentuhotep Nebhepetre (now in the Egyptian
rear wall occupied by the front of the (for the
is
which was removed
Within the outer walls of the
with the magnificent
It
structure directly behind the entrance portal.
original hall of appearances, with
ceiling,
in the Louvre.
was
Behind the pronaos of the main temple
The
lay
the found-
down.
ations of these latter structures were put
replaced in the reign of Augustus
I,
is
a well-preserved
roof chapel. In
and north-east of the roof of the temple
studied.
Between them
Bibliography: Description
lay the city of Tentyris.
IV, Plates
2-34; Auguste Edouard Mariette,
there are two places associated with the cult of Osiris
Denderah. Description generate du Grand Temple de
(Osireion), each consisting of three rooms. The central
and
room
a Denderah,
of the north-eastern suite of rooms contained the
cette ville. Text
plates (Paris-Cairo 1875); G. Daressy, Chapelle de in:
ASAE
17
(
Mentouhotep
1917) 226-234; Emile Chassinat,Ie temple
Dendur
70
de Dendara, 6 Vols (Cairo 1934-1972); Francois Daumas, Le
sanatorium de Dendara,
in:
BIFAO 56 (1956) 35-57; Francois
Daumas, Les Mammisis de Dendera (Cairo 1959); Francois Daumas,
Dendara
et le
temple d'Hathor, notice sommaire (Cairo 1969);
Francois Daumas, Le temple de Dendara,
in: Textes et
langages (Cairo
1972) 267-273; Sylvie Cauville, Les statues cultuelles de Dendera d'apres les inscriptions parietales, Sylvie Caulville
and Annie Gasse,
'house of millions of years', dedicated
to the state gods,
Amun-Re, Ptah, Ramesses
all,
Allowing for the absence of statues
of
Fouilles
de Dendara,
in:
BIFAO 88
75-85; Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 225-246; d'Isis a
Dendera,
GM
in:
terms of
pillared hall
were moved
its is
new
to a
One
plan and decoration.
Abu
section
free-standing.
damaged temple
Amada.
site at
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 50-52; A.M. Blackman, The
T
Temple of Derr (Cairo 1913);
reconsideration of the newly discovered
building inscription on the Temple of Denderah,
in
After 1964, sections of the seriously
(1988) 25-32; Sylvie Cauville, Le temple de Dendera. Guides
A
its
Re-Horakhty.
in the facade, the
long building resembles the Great Temple of
Simbel
archeologiques de Tlnstitut francais d'archeologie orientate du Caire (Cairo 1990); E. Winter,
m
37
BIFAO 87 (1987) 73-117;
in:
and, above
II
Save-Soderbergh,
in:
Helck,
LA
I
1069-1070; Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 23-25.
108 (1989)
Cauville, Le temple
S.
BSFE 123 (1992) 31-48; S. Cauville, Le temple de
in:
Dendera (Cairo 1990).
Dendur An Augustan
temple dedicated to
local deities Peteisis
Isis
and Pahor, near ancient
south of Aswan. Facing the Nile
platform, behind which
been flanked by
a
of Philae
is
is
a portal,
brick pylon but
it
a
and the
Tutzis,
77
km
rMTTIrtl Section through the hemispeos of Ramesses
II
at
•
fi
Derr
(after
EC. Gau)
wide stone-built
which would have
was never
erected.
Dima (Dimeh)
Beyond the pylon and an open court stands the main
The impressive ruins of the
temple building. The pronaos
which cover an area of 350 x 660 m, on the west bank of
chamber image
followed by an ante-
is
and sanctuary with a
for offerings
recess. This small building
cosmos of an Egyptian temple. Since 1980 the
flat
encompasses the it
cult
entire
has been in
MMA.
Histoire, Plates
10;
A.M. Blackman, The Temple of Dendur (Cairo
1911); E. Bresciani, Dendur,
in:
Helck,
LA
1
1063-1064; C. Aldred, The
Temple of Dendur, Bulletin of the Museum of (1978); Hassan el-Achiri,
M.
Aly, F.-A.
Art,
Hamid and
New
York 36/1
Soknopaiou Nesos,
Lake Faiyum, inhabited from the Ptolemaic period time of the
Roman
empire. Situated
to the
at its centre is a
temple dedicated to Soknopaios surrounded by a brick
m in size,
enclosure wall (85 x 125
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 23-26; Prisse d'Avennes,
city of
10-15 m).
to a height of
A
way
to the third floor
(windows,
D.
site.
Hagedorn, Dimeh,
in:
The
houses
Fig.,
D).
(Ann Arbor
1935);
to coarse-grained basaltic
deep
Bibliography: Arthur E.R. Boak, Soknopaiou Nesos
temple de Dandour, 2 Vols (Cairo 1972, 1979).
leads to the
destroyed; a few of the dwelling
is
were preserved up
Ch. Leblanc, Le
standing in parts
through the whole
city gate, cutting axially
temple building
still
processional
Helck,
LA
1094.
I
Diorite (quartzdiorite)
A
dark-grey,
medium-
rock, with a specific gravity of 2.75-2.87, used in the
manufacture of
palettes,
and occasionally the temple of
Mentuhotep
Rouge, temple of Sety
Aswan, Sinai,
in the
and
mace heads and stone
I
at
at
Bibliography: Lucas,
AEMI
71,
Abydos).
Abu
View
ot the
Augusta
It
is
found near
Steine 339-353;
De
at
Mount
Simbel.
408-410; Arnold, Der Tempel des
Konigs Mentuhotep von Deir el-Bahari
Klemm,
in
Deir el-Bahari, Chapelle
Eastern and Western Desert and
also north-west of
vessels,
and architecture (tomb
in sculpture
I
(Mainz 1974) 48-49;
Putter, Pierres
70-76; Nicholson,
Materials 30-31.
Derr
Divine booth
The only rock-cut temple of Ramesses II on the East Bank of the Nile in Nubia (156 km south of Aswan), a
Termed
seh-netjer in Egyptian, this type of shrine
is
attested to only in hieroglyphic depictions as a cult
Djedkare, pyramid of structure of reed bundles with a slightly arched roof,
thought to have belonged to Anubis.
Its
shape may'have
Dyed pillar A primeval fetish
Bibliography: Bernhard Grdseloff, Das dgyptische Reinigungszelt (Cairo 1941)39-42.
Dynastic Period, called an ah-
which
netjer, 'divine palace',
of
that this
is
and
Busiris,
attested to only in texts.
is
the origin of the
funerary enclosures
Abydos and Hierakonpolis, suggesting
that
deities of the
had
it
fortress-like brick enclosure with niching), inside
was the house of two tutelary
It
to
it,
which became the
also featured in the cult of the king.
Although one might expect
cult precinct of the Early
may be
bound
symbol of 'permanence'. The erection of the djed pillar formed part of the cults of Sokar and Osiris at Memphis and
Divine fortress
A
consisting of a pole with bundles of
plants, possibly sheaves,
survived in the entrance recesses of Late Period tombs.
71
of such a symbol, are,
because of the importance
it,
was never represented
it
decorated with djed motifs in raised Bibliography: Jequier,
a
which
King Sety
two lands,
in stone.
There
however, examples of relief pillars and pilasters
I at
Manuel
158;
relief.
Amice M.
Calverley,
The Temple of
Abydos IV (London-Chicago 1958), Plates
H. Altenmiiller, Djed-Pfeiler,
Helck,
in:
LA
1
1
8, 39;
100-1 105.
Nekhbet and Wadjet (Uto). Behind the main entrance
would have
lain
was
small, niched building. This
a
probably a place of assembly for carried out by the Horus king
Followers of Horus).
ritual festivals to
and the divine powers
importance
Its
provided the underlying pattern
for
architecture (Djoser precinct,
lies
in
be
(the
that
it
subsequent Egyptian
funerary enclosure,
mastaba, niching, palace facade). The following structures are
known from
Inebu-hedj.'The White Castle', reign of King Hor-Aha.
2.
Semer-netjeru, 'The
3.
Companion of
the Gods', reign of
Isut-netjeru, 'The Seats of the Gods', reign of
King
Mounds
Hut-netjen-netjeru, 'The Divine House of the Gods',
Qebehu-netjeru,'The Cool (Places) of the Gods', from
7.
Neru-tawy, 'Dread of the Netjerwy,'Of the P.
Two
Two
deep
It
m)
was faced with
The
chambers
are set
m, was
burial
revealed by the activity of stone robbers. is
at a slope
it
been found
The entrance
of 26 and 28°. A cult complex, east of
was paved with basalt and has granite
the pyramid,
was rapidly completed
Many
in brick,
intended to
sculptures (quartzite) have
there, including parts of the earliest
There
is
pyramid
a secondary
west corner of the precinct.
precinct has been
Kaplony, Gottespalast und Gotterfestungen
Friihzeit, in:
Studies
have been 125 cubits (65.5
in the rock. Its construction shaft, 10 x 23
ZAS 88
dedicated
mouth of Wadi Qarun
Lands', Djoser.
Gods', Djoser.
( 1
to
in
der
A causeway
known
in the south1
500
m
long
Michael Allan
in:
to
the
pyramid
plateau.
The
worked on since 1995 by the University
of Geneva and the IFAO, Cairo.
962 ) 5- 1 6; D. O'Connor, The status
of early Egyptian temples: an alternative theory,
Horus:
to
slope of 51°57'.
leads from the valley temple, not yet studied, at the
8.
Bibliography:
The
granite, of which the lowest layers were laid at a slope of
royal sphinx.
the 3rd Dynasty.
agyptischen
its
prominent
of Giza.
m in size and contained a pyramid
m) estimated
high based on
be only temporary.
of the Gods'.
reign of King Ninetjer. 6.
(106 x 106
a
Abu Rawash, 8 km north-west
217 x 267
is
columns;
Qau-netjeru,'The
5.
precinct
corridor
Djer.
Udimu/Den. 4.
elevation near
12° towards the interior.
texts:
1.
King
Djedefre (Redjedef), pyramid of The tomb precinct 'Star Tent of Djedefre', on
Bibliography:
MRA V; Edwards, Pyramids
164; Stadelmann,
Pyramiden
126-130; Muller, Monumentalarchitektur 24-25; M. Yalloggia,
The Followers of
Fouilles archeologiques a
Hoffman (Oxbow-
Monograph 1992)83-98.
Abou Rawash,
in:
Genava 43 (1995) 65-73
and Genava 44 (1996) 51-59.
Djedkare, pyramid of The funerary complex 'The Pyramid of is
at
Isesi is Beautiful'
South Saqqara. The pyramid has a base with sides
78.75
m long, a slope of approximately 52° and a height of
41.93 m. The core consisted of six steps. The burial
chambers were constructed at
the top,
robbery.
in a shaft, 9
m deep and open
and have been badly damaged by stone
The sarcophagus chamber
is
roofed with a triple
ceiling of relieving slabs (ceiling construction, Fig.).
The passage which connects the antechamber and the Hieroglyphic representation of a divine fortress
main room
is
protected by a weight-relieving arch of
Djoser precinct
72
or queen;
it
may have belonged
an unidentified
to
successor of Djedkare. The pyramid measures 42 x 42
and has
a court with 16
Bibliography:
Gegend
m
papyrus columns.
MRA X' III 6-4-116; M. Moursi, Die Ausgrabungen in der
um die Pyramide des Dd-k3-Rc'Jssj'bei Saqqara, in: ASAE 71
(1987) 185-193; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 180-184;
P.
Janosi, Die
Pyramidenanlage der 'anonymen Konigin des Djedkare- Isesi,
MDAIK45 (1989)
in:
187-202.
Djoser precinct The mortuary precinct of Djoser Ruins of the pyramid temple of Djedkare
at
Saqqara
architectural
stone which
is
an early example of a stone vault
it
standing.
From the antechamber
is
built
into the
in Egypt,
masonry and not
although
free-
leads off a group of
three chambers (serdab), a feature which recurs in the later
pyramids of the Old Kingdom. The complex
is
completed by a magnificent pyramid temple, a feature
which was introduced
in the reign of
consolidated the spatial
Sahure and which
programme
so strongly that
(under the influence of the teaching of the architect?) the later pyramids of the Old pattern.
The pyramid temple
is
Kingdom
and
entirely of stone
all
follow this
flanked by rectangular
is
monuments
at
Saqqara
is
built
one of the world's richest in
its
use of 'representation.
It
was the creation of the architect Imhotep, who brought the development of
mortuary complexes of the 1st— 3rd
Dynasty kings
its
to
peak.
It
is
of importance to
architectural history because pr;e-historic forms of construction,
made
translated into stone
of perishable material, were here
and have thus been preserved.
The principal element of the precinct wall, 10.50
is
the niched
m high and enclosing an area of 277 x 544 m,
with an entrance in the southern end of the east side as well as 14 other,
dummy
doors.
from behind the gate between
The entranceway leads a
double row of 20
bastions similar to those at the pyramids of Niuserre
columns
and Amenemhat
representation of a niched entrance palace, to the
II.
A causeway and
a valley
temple
were identified in 1945 but they have not been excavated.
A
small pyramid precinct
pyramid temple, with
a
lies to
the north-east of the
form dissimilar
to that
of a king
in the
form of bundles of
southern courtyard. This was probably
and the place where the
king's
plants, past a
a festival court,
run round the two 'turning
markers', by which he took possession of the complex,
great festival court
throne kiosk
E
court of chapels
kHi—
t=C
l
Ullllll 100
Simplified plan of the Djoser precinct at Saqqara
500
Djoser precinct
Principal phases of the development of the step
was carried
out.
The south
occupied by the South
mastaba with
orientated
(Fig.),
vaulted
chamber and an underground copy of
mats
at
face of the courtyard
Tomb a
mastaba of Djoser
Saqqara (section from east to west)
is
an east-west
roof, false burial a
palace made of
inlaid with green tiles (architectural ceramics).
The south-western corner of the courtyard
is
occupied by
unknown purpose, crowned with a frieze of Along the east side is a s^- festival structure with
surrounded with an
intricate
system of chambers and
corridors, again representing an
palace or temple,
its
underground
Tomb
the north side of the North
is
palace.
purpose unknown, equipped with a
purification basin (bath).
A
shrine against the east side
contained a statue of the king,
now in
the Cairo
Museum,
which was able look up through peepholes
uraei.
circumpolar
stars.
In the centre
is
ment was to
a
the step
Tomb
25-30 chapels dedicated
built in stages
final
m
mastaba, 60
of the King.
from an
initial
high,
The monu-
square mastaba
six-step structure. Probably during this
transformation the original underground apartment, representing a royal palace for the
afterlife,
distinguished
by chambers decorated with blue faience altered
tiles,
Tomb new phase
South
also received a granite chamber, in the
As
in
was
by the addition of a granite burial chamber. The
a
the South
marking
development of royal tomb building.
Tomb, the burial chamber here
is
Row
to the
To the east of this are the so-called
to the deities of the various parts of the country.
containing the North
On
a building like a
a building of
the king's throne, surrounded by
73
of chapels in the 5eJ-festival court in the Djoser precinct
Dolerite
74
'Maison du Sud' and 'Maison du Nord', thought to be the
The function of many other smaller buildings precinct
a raised altar
may
in the
not known. The northern courtyard, containing
is
on a platform,
originally have
is
incomplete. The complex
been completely surrounded by vast
and
it
may have
contained only the South Tomb, the
entrance palace, the North
Tomb
was enlarged
It
(in the step
mastaba),
and the 'Maison du Nord' and
the sed-festival chapels
'Maison du Sud'.
m
complex was only 240 x 400
original area of the
particularly grainy basalt, with a specific gravity of
2.93-3.05, varying from grey to blackish green.
important
second construction
in a
in
Egyptian construction work
production of stone
hammers (pounders') used
hard stone. These have been found of
ditches representing canals.
The
Dolerite
A
Upper and Lower Egypt.
state sanctuaries of
was the
to crush
in the
stone quarries
Aswan and Gebel el-Ahmar and
also at many New Kingdom.
construction
sites
The stone occurs at
It
for
Mount
from the Old
to the
in the Eastern Desert, the
Faiyum and
Sinai.
Bibliography: Engelbach, Obelisk 12-12; A. Zuber, Techniques travail
des pierres dures dans l'Ancienne Egypte,
phase, and the previously independent buildings were
Civilisations 5 (1956)
enclosed with massive masonry structures. In the
Building 262-263;
in:
Techniques
du et
161-180, 195-215; Lucas, AEA//61, 410; Arnold,
Klemm, Steine 42
1
south-western section there are rows of subterranean
magazines
may
of offerings, which
full
originally have
been part of the gallery tomb of a 2nd Dynasty king. Interpretation
difficult
is
the complex has
as
inscriptions apart from six reliefs in the South
may perhaps have royal
Tomb.
for the exercise of the king's rule
death. In terms of
precinct of Djoser
prime function, the
its
may have
united the older
tomb
Abydos and Memphis. The suggestion
concepts of
It
represented an idealised and stylised
and divine domain
after his
no
that
the enclosure wall, entrance palace, southern courtyard
and South Tomb royal
and
tombs
at
is
whole may be derived from the
Abydos with
that only the
Memphis,
as a
mastaba tomb
rejected
funerary enclosures,
their
concepts of
reflects the
by Stadelmann, who believes that
the precinct of Djoser developed out of the
lost)
Memphite kings' tombs of
superstructures of the
2nd Dynasty and
(now
the
that they represent the last conti-
nuation of the Lower Egyptian 'Butic' mastaba. Bibliography:
1935-1936); 1936-1939); roi
Lauer, La Pyramide a degre's, 3 Vols
J.-Ph. Lauer,
Etudes complementaires sur
loser a Saqqarah ( Cairo
J.-Ph. Lauer,
ASAE 61
1
les
(Cairo
monuments du
948 ); Lauer, Histoire monumentale 65- 1 76;
DLx campagnes (1960 a 1970) de travaux d'anastylose,
in:
(1973) 125-144; W. Kaiser, Zu den koniglichen Talbezirken in
Abydos und zur Baugeschichte des Djoser-Grabmals,
in:
MDAIK
25
(1969) 1-13; H. Altenmiiller, Bemerkungen zur rriihen und spaten
Bauphase des Djoserbezirkes
in Saqqara, in:
MDAIK 28
Swelim, The Dry Moat of the Netjervkhet Complex,
and Other
Essays Presented to
J.-Ph. Lauer,
l.E.S.
in:
in:
1972) 1-12; N.
Pyramid Studies
Edwards (London 1988
Sur certaines modifications
complexe funeraire de Djoser, Presented to
l.E.S.
(
et
II
2
22
extensions apportees au
Pyramid Studies and Other Essays
Edwards (London 1988) 5-11; Rainer Stadelmann,
in:
and
lintel.
was a hard stone slab
possible, the threshold
projecting above the level of the floor; less important
doors often had no threshold and continuous paving.
The two door posts stood on the threshold,
in
most cases
projecting forward beyond the surface of the wall, consisting of either built up blocks or monolithic pillars.
Door posts with are an
a
rounded side facing the passageway
uncommon form
(occurring mainly in the reigns
of Djoser and Senwosret
III).
gateways took the form of
The
lintel
of smaller
a single stone architrave,
while larger ones consisted of several
beams standing
upright on end. The door frames in sacred buildings were
always crowned with a cavetto cornice, which, in the case of large temple gateways, due to
its
heavy weight
smaller gateways was in
some
cases secured to the wall
by ropes threaded through bore cavetto cornices above the front
bridge was formed above the
and
lintel
holes.
Between the
rear of the gateway a
which, in the case of
pylons, was used as a crossing between the towers and
Medinet Habu
at
for the establishment of a solar cult area.
Monumental temple doors
are regularly flanked by free-
m in depth m wide) have a smaller gateway, open above, either
standing pylons. Large passageways (up to 15
and 7
in front or built into the passage, in order to reduce the size of the
door
leaves.
An
interesting
form are the
passageways between screen walls, found particularly
in
the Ptolemaic period, which usually have a broken-door lintel
(Deir el-Medina,
Fig.).
The
side-pillars
were
fitted
with a collared head in order to receive the upper turning
787-800; W. Kaiser, Zu den Granitkammern und ihren
spigot on the leaf of the door. Broken-door lintels
in:
Vorgangerbauten unter der Stufenpyramide und im Sudgrab von Djoser,
Where
Studies
Origins and Development of the Funerary Complex of Djoser,
Simpson
ideally consisted of a
threshold, door frame (with a door post)
above had to be specially secured; the cornice over
CM. Firth and I.E. Quibell, The Step Pyramid, 2 Vols (Cairo J.-Ph.
Door, see a/so door fastening, door leaf The door of a stone building
MDAIK 53
(
1997
1
195-207.
occurred
in the
Amarna
period in normal doorways,
probably to allow sunlight to enter. The ratio of width to
Door fastening height of Egyptian doors
on the
75
not constant, but depended
is
overall system of proportions of the temple in
question, fluctuating from 1:2 to
Doors had
sun discs, royal gates of the
own
their
1:3.
decorative
programmes (winged
king purifying). Huge temple
titulary,
Ramesside and Ptolemaic periods were
n
-,
covered with dozens of scenes. The reveals which were covered by the leaf of the door representations of figures,
when open could
not bear
and so they were decorated
instead with a frieze of symbolic signs,
and
in
some cases
metal overlay. Secret doors of stone are attested in the shape of wall
moved on metal
blocks which could be
were
likely to
rails,
but these
have been a curiosity (crypt).
Strong brick walls were always fitted with doors
which had door frames of stone or stone. In order to
stonework and the brick in
at least a
wall, the contact parts
rough condition. Door frames
frequently,
and those
wooden beams,
threshold of
m
improve the connection between the
in
tombs
in
were
left
houses were
occasionally,
made
of
j
Method of hanging an Egyptian door, showing hinge point via a
slot in
insertion into the
its
the floor
the door posts being pegged to the
threshold or just inset into
and models suggest
that
it.
Depictions (false door)
many houses and palaces had
a
supraporte over the grille
lintel
Ramesses
III at
Amarna,
at
AEM
Holscher, Chefren, Figs 24, 28-30; Clark, Holscher, Medinet
Ttir,
Borchardt,
Amenemhet
Habu IV
el-Amarna, Figs 14-16,
Tell
Plate 53;
III,
P.
und Tor im
Manuel 111-128; 162-169; Koenigs-
35, Figs 28-30, 42-45;
19,
Behrens, Riegel,
H. Brunner, Die Rolle von Tur
39 and others; Arnold, Helck,
in:
LA V 256-257;
alten Agypten, in:
und
6 (1982) 37-52; H. Brunner, Tur
N'.F.
palace of
Medinet Habu, window).
Bibliography: Perrot, L'Egypte 608-614; Jequier,
berger,
wooden
consisting of a carved
(tombs of Huya and Tutu
Symbolon
Tor, in: Helck,
LA VI
778-787; Thomas Grothoff, Die Tornamen agyptischer Tempel (Aachen 1996).
Door fastening, see also door, door
leaf
Egyptian doors were fastened by means of a
bolt.
On
double doors, the wooden or bronze bolt was mounted
on one
was
leaf
between two U-shaped staples or loops, and
two other staples on the other
slid into
form was known as type of bolt
is
a 'blade bolt'.
either
A
This
round or semi-circular, the centre
part typically being thicker.
The
this type,
on
a single-leaf
in the
door frame.
bolt
door pushed into a hole drilled
The cross-section of
leaf.
cross-section of this
known
as a 'pin bolt',
front part
was
sometimes decorated with a recumbent protective
lion.
is
either circular or rectangular;
its
Occasionally, for safety reasons, two bolts were
com-
bined on the same handle. Thresholds occasionally Reconstruction 1:
threshold;
frame;
2:
6: lintel
of
an
Egyptian
doorway,
viewed
from
pivot point; 3: slot for inserting door; 4: door post;
inside. 5:
door
show
drill
holes in the centre for vertical bolts.
A door
fastening allowing secret access from outside exists at the temple of
Qasr el-Sagha.
Door
76
leaf
into a
frame already
subsequently
filled in
by running the lower
in the wall
pivot along a groove
the threshold, which
in
was
with wedges of stone. In the Middle
Kingdom
this gutter
Old and
New Kingdoms
ran across the door axis, while in the it
ran along
it.
In single-leaf
doors, the reveal on the side of the wall with the pivot
sockets was deepened due to the thickness of the door; in the case of doors with two leaves, the reveals were equally
deep.
The
door leaf of the High Gate of
size of the
Medinet Habu was 4 x 6 m, Medinet Habu 4 x 2.93 x 14.35 m.
1 1
m, and
that at the first pylon of that at the pylon of
A double door 3.20
half-open in stone
at
m wide
is
Edfu
reproduced
the precinct of Djoser.
The
gateways between pylons are often too large to have been closed with to
wooden
leaves, their
be reduced by narrower gates
width therefore having
fitted into
them.
Bibliography: Borchardt, Ne-user-Re, Fjg. 39; Koenigsberger, Tiir
13-24; Ricke, Kamutef, Fig.
8;
J.
Jacquet,
domestique a l'epoque meroitique,
Remarques sur
l'architecture
in: Festschrift Ricke, Fig. 30.
Door recess Reconstruction of a door bolt in the form of a lion (after L. Borchardt).
Above closed;
left,
section; above right, view
below
right, section
from
front;
below
left,
section
when
From the time of Sneferu (lower temple at the Bent Pyramid) and Khufu, the rear hall of the open pillared courtyard in Old
when open
form of
a
Kingdom pyramid temples took
double or
triple
Bibliography: Holscher, Chefren 41-42, Sheet 11; Borchardt, Ne-user-
front of the statue shrines of the temple.
Re, Fig. 17; Borchardt, Sahu-Re, 56, 59-60; Borchardt, Re-Heiligtum,
of
Fig.
7;
Koenigsberger, Tiir 40-63; Ricke, Userkaf
Arnold, Der Tempel Qasr el-Sagha (Mainz 1979)
Die Versiegelung der Saostur, K.
Kuhlmann, Schlofi,
in:
Helck,
MDAIK
in:
Figs 3-4,
I,
7;
13, Fig. 7; E. Graefe,
27 (1971) 147-155;
LA V 658-661.
Sahure
this
element was reduced in
leaf,
The monumental tombs of the Late Period
matting
to give the
They were mounted using
not hinges but turning pivots, which protruded at the top
and bottom of the
leaf
and
rested in a bronze-coated
shoe. (Hinges were used very infrequently; examples
have been found
at
El-Lisht and in the
tomb of
Tutankhamun.) The edges or the whole surface of the leaves
important
of
temple
sometimes overlaid with
gateways
were
also
a thin sheet of bronze, even
being decorated with electrum, gold and silver (metal overlay).
Door
fitted into a at
Karnak
leaves were
mounted with
the lower pivot
socket below (the diameter at the is
first
50 cm). This was a hollow either
pylon in the
threshold in the form of a quarter-circle or in a separate
stone (in
some
cases horseshoe-shaped, consisting of
hard stone or metal). The upper pivot turned or stone socket in the architrave.
A
leaf
at
Thebes
in a
wooden
would be
fitted
Door 1953)
recess,
is
decorated with reed
appearance of a primeval sanctuary.
consisting of vertical boards held
together by horizontal battens.
a
five
statue shrines situated higher up.
have survived from the Old
leaves
Kingdom onwards,
the reign
becoming
have a deep vaulted recess in the rear wall of their sun
see also door, door fastening
Wooden door
From
size,
simple wall recess with stairs inside leading to the
courts, the rear wall of which
Door
the
pillared hall immediately in
mastaba of Seshe
Dwelling house Form and decoration meant
was
indicate that the door recess
to represent a roof of reed
matting in front of the
see also saw, stone working
Drilling, Drills
77
were used regularly from pre-historic times
inner rooms of the tomb, where the deceased received
onwards
funerary offerings.
3rd Dynasty onwards in the building industry for Bemerkungen
Bibliography: Ricke,
II
60-62; Eigner, Grabbauten
in the production of stone vessels,
cutting holes for pivots
and
bolts,
and from the
rope channels, dowel
holes for fastening metal overlays and the
120-123.
like.
Small
holes were drilled using a tube, larger ones using a
Dorginarti (Dorgaynarti)
copper tube fastened to a
A fortress of the
means of
18th Dynasty and the 8-5th century BC,
was
It
in the Nile at the exit of the
arrangements are conceivable. Abrasives used were dry quartz sand and, for particularly hard stone, perhaps
approximately 80 x 194 m, with walls up to 8 Bibliography:
(1916)
S.
Dunham,
m thick.
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in:
164-165;
J.
Ledant,
in:
emery or corundum. Some
JEA
3
Dows
Orientalia 34 (1965) 214;
Uronarti Shalfak Mirgissa, Second Cataract Forts, Vol. 2
(Boston 1967) 177-178;
Kush 14 (1966) 178-186;
J.
Knudstad, Serra East and Dorginarti,
L.
A
Forts at Dorginarti, in: Egypt
in:
Heidorn, The Saite and Persian Period
and
(London 1991) 205-219;
Africa
Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 48; Lisa A. Heidorn, The Fortress of
Dorginarti
and Lower Nubia during
the Seventh
and
Fifth Centuries
well as cores have
up
to
45 cm. Bore holes as
been preserved. Series of overlapping
bore holes have been found on irregular blocks of
limestone of the 3rd and 4th Dynasties of
at the precinct
Djoser and Meidum; their purpose remains
unexplained. Bibliography: Clark, D. Stocks, Sticks
AEM
and
194, 202-204; Petrie,
Stones of Egyptian
production Techniques,
burial,
surprisingly deep drill holes
are preserved with diameters
Pyramids 173;
Technology,
in:
Popular
Archaeology April (1986) 24-29; D. Stocks, Ancient Factory Mass-
B.C. (Chicago 1992).
Double
which was turned by
built to a triangular plan, covering
which stands on an island Second Cataract.
staff
a curved handle or a bow. Machine-like
see cenotaph, fca-tomb
in:
Antiquity 63 (1989) 526-531; Arnold,
Building, 265-266.
Drum
Drainage, see also roof drainage, water spouts
A representation
Despite scant precipitation, Egyptian buildings are
fastened with two cords above the door of a
provided with elaborate drainage systems. Water from
the opening of a false door, particularly found in
the sub-soil gutters,
was directed along sloping
where
was channelled
it
seepage collecting shafts
(at the
levels into stone
into reservoirs or
temple of Niuserre a
round quartzite basin beside the causeway and round alabaster basins in the sun sanctuary,
Khentkawes
I
at the
temple of
a large rectangular basin with stairs).
Stone gutters have been found both open or covered with slabs,
sometimes running through under a
mastaba sides
of Mentuhotep at El-Lisht
by stone gutters, with an elbow
at
Old
Kingdom. According
to
turning socket. In most cases a simple cylinder;
niches
at
drums
it
tiles
(architectural decoration).
Bibliography: Koenigsberger, Tiir 13, 28-29.
There are a few rare instances of interlocking day in
Abusir, Uronarti). The system of copper pipes in the
washing basin
of Sahure, which led from the hand-
in the
sanctuary
temple and from there
down
all
the
way through
the
the length of causeway,
is
unique. Copper pipes, instead of being connected by soldering, were fastened Bibliography: Jequier, 120; Borchardt,
by being hammered
together.
Manuel 53-56; Borchardt, Ne-user-Re
Sahu-Re 29, 75-83; Clark,
AEM
View and section of a stone door drum
153-161; Selim
Hassan, Excavations at Giza, Vol. 4 (Cairo 1943) 85-95;
Dunham,
22, 97,
Dows
Uronarti, Shalfak, Mirgissa (Boston 1967) 25, Plate 19.
it
the precinct of Djoser with detailed designs
provided by faience
were patched with U-shaped pieces coated with gypsum.
pyramid temple
Koenigsberger
or
consists of a shape like
all
Djedemankh
tomb
are represented in the relief
each corner; gaps
pipes leading to clay basins (tomb of
up reed mat curtain,
represented a cross-beam for the fastening of an upper
The
wall.
surrounded on
is
the
in stone of a rolled
Dwelling house, see house
E
Edfu An important
a pylon of the
settlement, necropolis and, above
all,
the
uniquely well-preserved temple of Horus, 'Throne of
The present building replaces
Horus'.
several earlier
structures, of which, in the absence of excavation work, little is
known. An exact description
the earliest temple.
exists,
however, of
The building erected by Senwosret
I
is
New Kingdom, which
faces towards the
landing stage on the Nile. The pronaos
m
and 34
capital pillars. Built into left
its
screen wall there
m
high
right a library
is
on the
morning and
a chapel for the rites of the 'house of the
on the
12.5
is
wide, with three rows of six composite-
room. To the side of the pillared
hall beyond, on the east, opposite the treasury,
is
a
room
known
for the preparation of ointments. Behind this
lies
from re-used blocks of the Second Intermediate Period,
offering table hall with the hall of the Divine
Ennead
chamber
leads to
recorded in inscriptions and later structures are
the
New Kingdom and
beyond.
the Late Period found here.
The present building, which was begun on 23 August 237 BC, initially consisted of a pillared hall, two transverse halls
and a barque sanctuary surrounded
by-
was dedicated by Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II on 10 September 142 BC. The pronaos in front was built in
chapels.
It
140-124 BC, and construction of the colonnaded court
and pylon, 36
m high, followed in
116-71 BC. The pylon
the
A
door
in the east wall of that
wabet A naos of Nectanebo .
building,
is
II,
preserved in the principal sanctuary, which
thick
In front of the
main temple, in
the Ptolemaic birth
house
Edfu, showing construction phases
the south-west corner,
it,
is
no longer preserved,
to the sacred falcon.
The course of
the outer brick enclosure wall has been uncovered onlv at
landing place
at
is
of the divine triad of Horus,
was a temple dedicated
Plan of the temple of Horus
surrounded
and contains extensive crypts.
receiving light through slots in the facade (pylon, Fig.).
beside the courtvard, are the remains of
is
by nine chapels. The masonry of the enclosure walls
Hathor and Harsomtus. Opposite
east,
a relic from an earlier
stands in isolation. The barque sanctuary
contains an interesting system of stairways and chambers,
To the
the
f
Ehnasya el-Medina (Herakleopolis Magna) Horus. P.
An
Ancient Egyptian Sacred
Centenaire (IFAO
Drama (London-Berkeley
du Temple d'Edfou
Barguet, La cour
79
Cosmos,
et le
in:
1974);
Livre
du
1980) 9-14; Sylvie Cauville, Edfou. Les guides
archeologiques de ITnstitut francais d'archeologie orientale du Caire (Cairo 1984);
S.
temple d'Edfou,
Cauville in:
and
D. Devauchelle, Les
BIFAO 84 (1984) 23-34;
323-331; Sylvie Cauville, £550/ sur
restitue'e
Reise der Hathor von Dendera nach Edfu,
mesures
reelles
du
LA
VI,
Vernus, Helck,
theologie
la
Edfou (Cairo 1987); Aufrere, L'Egypte
P.
du temple d'Horus a
247-255; D. Kurth, Die Kurth, Tempeltagung
in:
211-216; Sylvie Cauville, Edfou (Cairo 1984); Arnold, Temples
169-171,200-202,216-220.
The remains of
a small step
proper study, are located 5
mastaba,
still
awaiting
km to the south-west of Edfu.
Bibliography: Dreyer, Stufenpyramiden 45.
Pylon and courtyard of the temple of Horus
at
Ehnasya el-Medina (Herakleopolis Magna) An important settlement and cemetery with the temple
Edfu
of Herishef which the south-west corner.
It
is
known
that there existed a
is
attested to
and 18th Dynasties, which were
sacred lake, accommodation for priests and admini-
the 12th
strative buildings, as well as the grove of the sacred falcon,
Ramesses
II,
structions.
The temple forecourt
store
rooms
for supplies, stables, kitchens etc.
west of the temple
necropolis of the primeval gods Bibliography: Description
To the south-
thought to be the Behedet, the
is
I
and the tomb of Osiris.
Plates 48-65;
M. de Rochemonteix and
Emile Chassinat, Le temple d'Edfou, 14 Vols (Cairo 1897-1934), I
Vol.
— II revised: Sylvie Cauville and D. Devauchelle, Le temple d'Edfou
Ombo,
in:
ASAE
de
Kom-
52 (1952) 215-221; H.W. Fairman, The Triumph of
Pronaos and courtyard of the temple of Horus
at
Edfu
is
a
by
noteworthy feature:
m wide, has
back of the courtyard, 50 rear like a
pronaos with
columns, each one 5.25
are
et
re-built
column of the side-halls there was a colossal statue of Ramesses II, 6-7 m tall. The hall at the
M. Alliot, Le culte d'Horus a Edfou au temps des Ptolemees (Cairo 1949, Lacau, Notes sur les plans des temples d'Edfou
Dynasty
in front of each
the Old or Middle
P.
1st
incorporating material from older con-
/-//(Cairo 1984-90); Blackman and Fairman,/E4 32 (1946) 75-91;
1954);
from the
onwards. There are remains of buildings dating from
now
a
a structure at the
double row of eight palm
m high, possibly dating back to
Kingdom. Examples of these columns
in the British
Museum,
Boston, Manchester,
Bolton and Philadelphia. Lying beyond
it is
a hall with
four rows of six pillars and the inner chambers of the
El-Amada
80 temple.
The main temple
building, excluding the court-
yard, measures 22.4 x 42.5
Bibliography: Edouard Naville,
Ahnas
el
Medineh (London 1894)
1-14; W. Flinders Petrie, Ehnasya 1904 (London 1905);
Herakleopolis magna,
in:
Helck,
El-Bersha
A necropolis
m.
L4
1124-1127;
II
BdE 40
el-Din Mokhtar, Ihnasya el-Medina,
F.
Gomaa,
Mohamed Gamal
(Cairo 1983) 75-88;
Maria del Carmen Perez-Die and Pascal Vernus, Excavaciones en
tombs
nomarch Djehutyhotep
(No. 2)
of Thutmosis
probably on the
site
surrounded on
example six
at
II,
built
was planned
It
by a colonnade
sides
(like the
Buhen), but only the portico
to
has a
tomb of it
and no columns. The
the transport of a colossal
famous (sledge,
Fig.).
Bibliography: Percy. E.Newberry, ElBersheh, 2 Vols (London 1892/94);
Badawy, Architecture
III.
711-715;
to
E.
II
143- 146;
F.
Junge, El-Berscheh,
Brovarski et di.,Bersheh Reports
I
in:
Helck,
LA
I
(Boston 1992).
be
surviving
at the front,
made
statue has
south of Aswan,
m, was dedicated
9.7 x 23.6
Re-Horakhty.
all
km
200
of an earlier building of Senwosret
The temple, measuring
Amun-Re and
and Amenhotep
III
Nile,
it
columns with palm capitals. The deep chamber has a statue niche in the east
depiction in this
on the West Bank of the
tomb of
of architectural
is
importance. Like the later tombs of Beni Hasan, portico with two
wall approached by a small stairway
El-Amada A small temple
of Wadi Deir
of the upper class of the
15th Upper Egyptian nome. The 12th Dynasty the
rectangular cult
Ehnasya El Medina (Madrid 1992).
mouth
opposite Mallawi at the
el-Nakhla, with 37 rock
with
channelled columns, was completed and connected
El-Deir
The ruins of a brick temple of the 2nd-3rd centuries AD lying 1.5
km
north of the fortification of El-Deir
(at the
with a forecourt. The courtyard was modified under
southern end of the Kharga Oasis).
Thutmosis IV
extended, similar to that of the neighbouring temple of
in to a pillared hall containing four
The
three pillars.
temple
interior of the
is
rows of
carefully
decorated and consists of a hall of appearances and an offering table
room with two chambers
which face each
other.
completed under Sety
I
for cult images,
Qasr Dush. In
is
is
unusually
an antechamber
The antechamber and
to a
hypostyle
room and
the
hall, have a
The facade of the temple was
flat
which are the innermost chambers, have vaulted
roof; the offering table
ceilings.
28
In 1964/65, the whole temple
on a terrace
sides.
plan
with a small pylon, connecting
south-west there are the remains of a barque station.
site,
its
room, corresponding
with the enclosure wall of the temple precinct. In the
higher
front of the temple
with benches along first
Its
2.6
km
was moved on
rails to a
The temple
whole
m
5.25
is
wide and
m long. Naumann, Bauwerke der Oase Khargeh, in: MDAIK&
Bibliography: R.
further west.
as a
the sanctuary,
(1939) 15-16.
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites Plates 48-49; Henri Gauthier, Le
temple d'Amada (Cairo 1913); Borchardt, Tempel mil Urngang,
und Altertumskunde
Beitrage zur agyptischen Bauforschung
41-44, Plate
13;
Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Le deplacement
du temple d'Amada, et des
2
in:
Annates de
1'Institut
technique du bdtiment
travaux publics (Paris 1966); M. Aly and M. Dewachter, Le
temple d'Amada (Cairo 1967); C.C. Van Siclen history of the Thutmoside temple at
Thutmosis
IV,
in:
Varia Aegyptiaca
Ramessidische Bautatigkeit 20-23.
III,
Amada and 3
(1987)
The building
the Jubilees of
53-66;
Hein,
Elephantine
A
large island opposite
Aswan
with significant remains
of a trading settlement, whose beginnings go back to prehistoric times
the
1st
restored
and which developed out of
a fortress of
town and temples have been exemplary way by the German
Dynasty. The in
an
Archaeological Institute, Cairo. Bibliography: L. Habachi, Elephantine,
Detailed excavation reports in
Reconstruction of the facade of the temple of Ehnasya el-Medina (Herakleopolis Magna)
in:
Helck,
MDAIK from
26
(
LA
I
1217-1225.
1970), particularly
Elephantine
81
44 (1988) 135-182; Werner Kaiser, Elephantine: die antike Stadt (Cairo 1998).
1.
Old Kingdom settlement
The
earliest parts of the settlement are to
south-eastern corner of the island. a wall
It
be found on the
was surrounded by
D
which followed the shape of the terrain and was
equipped with rounded towers. To the north, and outside the wall, lies a fortress, 53 x 53
Plans of the Satet temples of Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
towers. Both structures were built in the 1st Dynasty. Ziermann,
Martin
Bibliography:
10
m in area, also with round und
Befestigungsanlagen
Senwosret
I
(right),
(left)
and of
Elephantine
Stadtentwicklung in der Fruhzeit und im friihen Alten Reich (Mainz
Remarks on
1993); Cornelius von Pilgrim, Untersuchungen in der Stadt des
und derZweiten Zwischenzeit (Mainz
Mittleren Reiches
the Tuthmoside Temple of
Khnum
at
Elephantine,
1996).
Untersuchungen im Bereich des spaten Chnumtempels.in: 2.
Temple of
(1990) 189-193, 51 (1995) 147-164;
Khnum
Amenhotep
added
II
a
Ramesside kings may have with a pylon.
An
under Nectanebo
III,
to
last).
This main temple building
(it
is
almost
can be reconstructed only from the
The structure was enlarged
in the reigns of
Ptolemy
VI and VIII by the addition of an open pronaos with two rows of
A
columns;
six
a granite
gateway
is still
standing.
pillared courtyard at the front, planted with trees,
a pylon
48
and
m wide were added in the Roman period. The
total length
Walter Niederberger, Der Chnumtempel Nektanebos' II (Mainz 1999).
important new structure was added
II.
granite portal and a few fragments from the walls and
foundations
Elephantine durch Nektanebos' II, Elephantine, Vol. 17 (Mainz 1998);
an additional forecourt
completely destroyed, with the exception of the king's
the
Die
(Mainz 1996); Hanna Jenni, Die Dekoration des Chnutntempels auf
which
colonnaded forecourt. The built
MDAIKA6
Ewa Laskowska-Kusztal,
Dekorfragmente der ptolemaisch-romischen Tempel von Elephantine
Blocks found attest to the existence of an ambulatory
temple of Hatshepsut and Thutmosis
in:
Varia Aegyptiaca 6 (1990) 188-194; Jaritz, Terrassen; W. Niederberger,
3.
Temple of Satis
Beside
this,
temple,
lies
a level slightly
below that of the
interesting stages of development.
had been a simple
there
granite rocks, with a
which the portable
became then a and,
was 123 m.
on
mud cult
new building was a
From
pre-historic times
cult building set
brick plinth
amid
set
large
at the front,
image would have
a small temple in the 6th
later,
Khnum
the temple of Satis, which went through several
rested.
Dynasty (temple,
on It
Fig.),
up by Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
limestone structure of Senwosret
I
with fine
decoration. Over this Hatshepsut erected a temple with a Bibliography: Herbert Ricke,Di> Tempel Nektanebos' II. in Elephantine,
BeitrageBf 6 (Cairo 1960); Peter Grossmann, Kirche
und spatantike
Hausanlagen im Chnumtempelhof (Mainz 1980); Van Siclen
Plan of the
Khnum
temple
at
Elephantine
pillared corridor
around
it,
almost
all
of which has been
reconstructed in recent years using surviving relief blocks III,
El-Hebua
82
(Sile)
of the Ptolemaic temple which was built over traces of the that
was
it.
Only the
foundations remain of the Ptolemaic temple
built over
it,
which show that the building was
fronted with the traditional open pronaos. Next to the
both Mentuhotep Xebhepetre and
temple of
Satis,
Senwosret
built a purification
I
chapel
Bibliography: Borchardt, Tempel mit
Der Tempel der
made
of stone.
Umgang 44-47;
(Mainz 1986); W. Kaiser.Zur Rekonstruktion des Satettempels der Dynastie,
in:
MDA1K44
was
on
set
12.
and papyrus columns possibly of Ramesses
it
was
It
similar chapel,
Plates 34-38; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire,
I,
Umgang 95-98, 100-101,
Laming Macadam, Gleanings from
the Bankes
MSS,
Sheet 21;
]EA 32
in:
(1946)59-60.
(Sile)
Now an area of ruins at the former mouth of the Pelusian
In the north-west part of the
three steps (step
town was a structure with
mastaba) of the 3rd Dynasty
m, height approximately
blocks of granite.
name
A
1837.
around
front.
to the north, has also disappeared.
II,
Plate 11; Borchardt, Tempel mit
El-Hebua
18.46 x 18.46
and
the back
at
destroyed sometime before
M.F.
The barque chamber
(1988) 152-157
Step mastaba
4.
III.
a raised base with a pillared corridor
Bibliography: Description
Giinter Dreyer,
Die Funde der Fruhzeit und des Alten Reiches
Satet.
barque station of Amenhotep
A granite
(size
12.6 m), of rough
cone found nearby bears the
of King Huni.
Bibliography: G. Dreyer, Nordweststadt: Stufenpyramide,
in:
arm
of the Nile to the Mediterranean, this was originally
a fortified settlement,
Hebua
I)
stores,
houses and
m
400 x 800
the Hyksos Period to the
in area, dating
from
end of the New Kingdom
(El-
maintaining the 'Ways of Horus', having grain a turreted
brick.
wall.
MDAIK El-Hiba
36 ( 1980) 276-280; Dreyer, Stufenpyramiden 43-44.
Ruins of a fortress and town on the East Bank of the 5.
Heqaib shrine
Nile, north-east of
Maghagha. There
Amun
Further to the west, within the town, was the Heqaib
small temple of
shrine, significant in the development of this type of cult
inside the enclosure wall
structure.
It
was
originally
an open
cult courtyard with
two statue chapels, erected by Sarenput the reign of Senwosret
I,
for his
own
I,
cult
a
nomarch of
and
that of his
ancestor Heqaib. A few shrines were added by Sarenput
and some successors of the 12th Dynasty, so
II
that the ka-
(two rows of four
Middle Kingdom.
Hermann
6.
Standing
of the earliest true pronaoi
an offering table
pillars),
hall
and
a
cult
images, as well as a crypt. Bibliography:
(Heidelberg 1994).
I.
a stone-built temple house
barque chamber with four side-rooms housing
de son temple
Das Heiligtum des Heqaib auf Elephantine
are the remains of a
by Sheshonq
(two rows of four papyrus columns) and a pillared hall
images, with approximately 60 statues, by the end of the
1985); Detlef Franke,
is
m) with one
(17.65 x 35.8
statue house consisted of at least 10 shrines for cult
Bibliography: Labib Habachi, The Sanctuary of Heqaib, 2 Vols (Mainz
built
et
I.
LA
aus El-Hibeh,
in:
in:
in:
ASAE
2 (1901) 84-91;
und der Amontempel
Bei El Hibe (Berlin- Leipzig 1926) 58-68; E. Graefe, El-
Helck,
Hibe,
Kamal, Description des ruines de Hibe,
de sa necropole,
Ranke, Koptische Friedhofe bei Karara
Scheschonks
I.
Ahmed Bey
II 1
180-1 181;
SAK 6
(
E. Feucht,
Zwei Reliefs Scheschonks
1978) 69-77.
Barque station
Illustrations
"
from the early 19th century indicate the )
56
58
"55 :
gyr."
:
'
-
existence of a particularly beautiful, completely preserved
Ptolemy
..JA.
.
--.
II
MWi Reconstructed facade of the temple of Sheshonq
1
at
El-Hiba (after H.
Ranke)
<==LJ 1 I
' '
'I
'
'
f
El-Kab The town of Nekheb, 18
km
north of Edfu, was an
l
Plan of Ptolemaic Satet temple
at
Elephantine
important
site
from pre-historic times onwards as the
El-Kharga, temple of Hibis
goddess Nekhbet, the mistress of
seat of the vulture
Upper Egypt.
It
area, enclosed
had numerous sanctuaries. In the central
by the
still
extant brick wall of the town,
stands the precinct of Nekhbet,
surrounded by a brick temple,
now
304 x 376
was approached by
long processional way from a platform Nile.
m wide area
The south-facing principal
wall.
totally ruined,
its
a
600
m
Desert. Standing on the desert edge
which has
set of stairs leading to
Ptolemy IX Soter
70
II.
m
remains of a small sanctuary of Ramesses Re-Horakhty, Hathor, Amun and Nekhbet.
until
Roman
times.
The
last
A east.
rows of 6
pillars)
from the reign of Hakoris, an offering room and a sanctuary of Darius
I
with several crypts and side-
rooms. The actual temple building was 54 courtyard between the brick
barque
first
station;
m long. In the
and second pylons stood
the
a
courtyard beyond was
occupied by a birth house surrounded by a colonnade. Parallel to that
stood a 45
complex, along the west side of the temple,
m long temple dedicated to Thoth. In
sanctuaries
of the
latter
and
six
1798 the
columns of the
hypostyle hall of the Nekhbet temple were preserved up to the architraves. 610
m west
stations
of the town wall are the ruins of two barque
surrounded by colonnades; the
by Thutmosis
III
Elephantine, was
the other one
was
station
to the gold
and
dedicated to
Roman
is
Another structure existing
pillars.
fortification (area 50 x 50
Bibliography: Description
I,
to the
well-preserved and has four
Plates 66, 71;
J.
at
m).
Capart, Fouilles de ElKab.
Documents (Brussels 1940); Borchardt, Tempel mit Umgang 12-13, 93-95, 102-104; excavation reports,
in:
ASAE
37 (1937) 3-15 and
38 (1938) 623-640; A. Badawy, Fouilles d'El-Kab (1945-46); architectural notes, in:
Les
monuments
ASAE 46
1971); Frans Depuydt, d'Elkab.
I:
(1947) 357-371; Philippe Derchain,
religieux a I'entree de I'ouady Hellal, S.
Hendrickx and
D.
Elkab I (Brussels
Huyge, Topographie
Archaeological-topographical surveying of Elkab
surroundings. 2: Inventaire des
sites
and
archeologiques (Brussels 1989);
Aufrere, L'£gypte restituee 49-52.
El-Kharga, temple of Hibis A well-preserved temple of Amun of Thebes in the Kharga Oasis built on the edge of a former lake. The building,
30th Dynasty.
mouth
a
II
on a rock plateau further
exists
noteworthy Hathor is
The
of these,
completely preserved in 1798;
built in the
on the road
first
and resembling the barque
still
Several small temples exist at the Hellal
still
m to the north and
III
This building
El-Kab
II
Hathor temple of Thutmosis IV and
small
and was composed of a pillared hall
(4
rock.
to the south-east lie the
edge of the
at the
a pillared
complex was erected by Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
Amenhotep
at
wide
a
and a sanctuary carved out of the
forecourt
Remains show the development of the sanctuary,
from the 12th Dynasty
built
a terraced temple
dedicated to the goddess Shesmetet (Greek Smithis),
building erected (in the 30th Dynasty) had four pylons,
56
is
83
of the
Wadi
mines of the Eastern
Plan of the temple of Hibis at El-Kharga, showing phases of construction
27.4 x 62
m
in area,
period (Psamtek
II?)
was probably erected
and decorated
in the Saite
in the reign of Darius
I
El-Kula
84
Reconstruction of the final building phase of the temple of Hibis
at
El-Kharga (after
L.F.
Hauser)
an early
Bibliography:
form of pronaos with four smoothed papyrus columns
Lauer, Histoire
and Darius
II
At the front of the temple
(?).
and screen walls
I
is
the hypostyle hall, an offering table
room with
a
1
CdE 49 (1950) 42-45;
179, 228-230;
R. Gundlach, El-Kulah, in: Helck,
Beyond the pronaos he
as at El-Hiba).
Stienon, El Kolah, in:
J.
monumentale
LA
III
MRA II 65-67, Plate
11;
838-839; Dreyer Stufen-
pyramiden 45-46.
sanctuary, the chapel of the deified king and side-rooms
with stairs up to the roof. These lead to an extensive complex of cult
rooms on the upper
floor.
Dynasty, instead of the traditional pillared court another hypostyle was built
at
the front
onto a narrow courtyard. The with a pylon. Nectanebo
I
whose front columns open
new
El-Lahun (lllahun), see Senwosret
II
Under Hakoris, 29th
facade was not finished
and Nectanebo
II
surrounded
the temple with a stone enclosure wall which, at the front,
El-Lahun
tomb
621
A royal tomb of the reign of Senwosret the style of the royal
identity
II at
El-Lahun, in
tombs of the 5-6th Dynasty;
cannot be ascertained.
It
consists
its
of an
antechamber, serdab, burial chamber, canopic shrine
enclosed a monumental kiosk (Fig.) with eight columns.
(canopic recess) and a niched granite sarcophagus.
Because of the excessively wide span of 7.4 m, the kiosk
The tomb was never used and may have been a
had
to
be roofed with wooden
known
rafters.
and hypostyle
capitals in the kiosk
The composite
in Egypt. In front of the kiosk are
passing through three enclosure walls
lake,
with corresponding gateways. The temple
been made
to relocate the
temple
is
in
danger of
and preparations have
collapsing due to sub-soil water,
to the site of
Bagawat.
Bibliography: H.E. Winlock, The Temple of Hibis in El Khargeh Oasis
New
York 1941);
S.
Sauneron, Quelques sanctuaires egyptiens des
M;
i
E
Summer
1986 Field Seasons,
Ellesiya
A
site
70
km
1988). Reconstruction: Aufrere, L'Egypte
with a small rock
Bibliography: Silvio Curto, Subien (Munich
Thutmosis'
III
dedicated to
1966
El-Kula 18.6 x 18.6
III.
bei Ellesija. Analyse des Dekorationsprogramms, in:
Kurth, Tempeltagung 69-87.
Senwosret El-Lisht, see also Amenemhat An important royal necropolis of the early 12th Dynast); in which are found the pyramids of Amenemhat I and I,
Senwosret
mastaba,
Abu Simbel
Amun, the king, Horus and Satis. It consists of a forecourt carved out of the rock, and a rock-cut room with a statue niche. In 1969 it was moved to the Museo Egizio in Turin.
private a small step
north of
temple (hemispeos) of Thutmosis
in:
restituee II 80.
Remains of
1923) 16-18.
Ramessidische Bautatigkeit 26-27; R. Gundlach, Der Felstempel
in:
Varia Aegyptiaca 3 (1987) 215-230; E. Cruz-Uribe, Hibis Temple
Project I (San Antonio
U (London
Cahiers
in:
(1986) 157-166: E. Cruz-Uribe, Hibis Temple Project:
Preliminary Report, 1985-1986 and
II.
Flinders Petrie, lllahun
Cruz-Uribe, The Hibis
Temple Project 1984-1985 Field Season, Preliminary Report,
JARCE 23
W.M.
Desroches-Noblecourt, Le speos d'el-Lessiya (Cairo 1968); Hein,
Oasis de Dakhleh et de Khargeh. Notes de voyage, d'Histoire Egyptienne 7
Bibliography:
two obelisks,
and an avenue of sphinxes leads up from the quay on the edge of the
secondary tomb of Senwosret
hall are the earliest
m, of the
I
as well as extensive areas covered with
I,
tombs of the Middle Kingdom. Next to the pyramid
of Amenemhat
I
are several large private
tomb complexes,
3rd or early 4th Dynast); north of Hierakonpolis. A small
one of them bearing the name of the owner (the
chamber has been found, perhaps
Inyotef-iqer).
a burial chamber.
Next
to the
pyramid of Senwosret
vizier I
are
El-Maharraqa
85
B< k
'
—
'
j,::. .v>'
-"—
,,•---'-. "'>-' : *
'
.
—
niched granite
'^n sarcophagus
20
^^ Plan and sections of royal
tomb 621
at
El-Lahun
remains of the funerary enclosures of high-ranking officials
25
—I—
(Senwosretankh, Imhotep, Mentuhotep) and
other tombs without names. The remains of the residential city of Iti-tawy lie
of El-Lisht and
abandoned
in the area of the
towns
It
contains considerable remains of settle-
destroyed
I
J.E.
Gautier and G. Jequier, Fouilles de Licht (Cairo
Lischt, in: Helck,
LA
902 );
1057-1061. Settlement: Felix
III
Arnold, Settlement remains in Lisht-North,
in:
Bietak,
House and
found
in a
III
with Sobek (now in Luxor Museum), was
an antechamber covered with a slab moved by bronze wheels on rails to
keep animals (but unsuitable for
which would have needed
Bibliography: H.S. Bakry,
An
Egypt, in: MDAIK 27 (1971) 131-146.
from the
latest pre-historic
sunlight).
The discovery of a temple of Sobk
El-Ma'adi east of Cairo, dating
is
of
A twisting corridor connects this with
crocodiles,
extensive settlement with several cemeteries, south-
on the fringe of the
subterranean (possibly flooded) shaft chamber.
perhaps used
Palace 15-21.
the south of
Mahamid Qibly. The 18th Dynasty temple down to the foundations. A statue group,
Amenhotep 1
to
was re-discovered in 1966 during the digging
of the Sawahel-Armant Canal
Bamha. The area surrounding the pyramid
ments of the 13th and 20th-21st Dynasties. Bibliography:
Armant. village of
of Amenemhat
W.K. Simpson,
El-Mahamid Qibly (Dahamsha) A sanctuary of Sobek of Sumenu,
in
upper
Isis
and
phase.
El-Maharraqa An incomplete Roman temple
dedicated to
with rounded corners and central supports, the oldest
Serapis at Hiera Sykaminos in
Lower Nubia, 120
stone building in Egypt,
south of Aswan, on the southern border of the Roman
There are the remains of some round dwelling houses half sunk into the ground.
is
A
particularly intriguing.
Bibliography: W. Kaiser, Ma'adi,
in:
Rizkana and Jiirgen Seeher, Maadi
and
the Structural
1989) 33-60.
rough fieldstone building
Remains of
Helck,
III.
LA
III
1110; Ibrahim
The Non-Lithic Small Finds
the Predynastic Settlement
(Mainz
km
empire. The only part completed was a court measuring 13.56 x 15.69
An
m, surrounded on three sides by columns. is the winding staircase at a
architectural curiosity
corner of the court leading to the roof (compare winding
86
El-Qal'a
unique evidence of Old Kingdom monumental building
Upper Egypt. Blocks bearing the names of
activity in
Mentuhotep Nebhepetre and Mentuhotep Sankhkare enable one to reconstruct buildings of the
which were replaced by
new
a
1th Dynasty,
1
structure of Senwosret
m
which the foundation base measuring 19 x 26 wall have survived. in
of
I,
and
a
The 'Treasure of Tod' was discovered
1936 in the foundations, consisting of four bronze
chests of Amenemhat
which contained valuables from
II
neighbouring countries to the north-east.
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
Kingdom temple
enlarged the Middle
II
the front, building the existing
at
facade wall into the newly added structure of a
hypostyle hall and pronaos; work on the decoration continued into the reign of Antonius Pius. In the reign of Ptolemy IV the temple was linked by an avenue of
sphinxes
to a
platform. Next to
temple
tfye
lake, an interesting stone structure, 9
station of Thutmosis
a sacred
is
m deep. A barque
stands to the north of the
III
processional way. Incomplete
Roman
temple to
Isis
and Serapis
A
El-Maharraqa
at
Thutmosis
larger temple of
III
believed to
is
lie
outside the area of ruins, under the mosque. stairs in the lost
building was
triumphal arch of Antinopolis). The
moved
in 1961
Organisation to a place near
Bibliography:
Helck, Z.A
II 1
la
Roque, Tod (1934-1936), FIFAO 17
CdE 24
(Cairo 1937);
Wadi
(1937) 3-14; D. Arnold, Bemerkungen zu den friihen Tempeln von
el-Sebu'a.
El-T6d,
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 40-41; W. Helck, Hierasykaminos, in:
Bisson de
F.
by the Egyptian Antiquities
in:
F.
Bisson de
MDAIK
31
(1975)
Inscription of Senwosret
186-1 187.
Roque, Le
la
in:
I,
lac sacre
de Tod,
in:
175-186; D.B. Redford, The Tod
SSEA Journal
(1987) 35-55;
17
fouilles.in: J. Vercoutter, Tod (1946-1949). Rapport succint des
El-Qal'a
50 (1952) 69-87;
A temple measuring of
Min
at
16 x 24
to the time of Augustus.
and contains
all
A
is
in larger temples,
is
Bibliography: C. Traunecker, El Qala,
Pantalacci
Helck,
in:
ASAE
le
70 (1984/85) 133-141; Laure
and Claude Traunecker, Le temple
d'El-Qal'a Vol. ,
1
(Cairo
Claude Traunecker, Lessons from the Upper Egyptian
temple of el-Qal'a, C. Traunecker,
in:
Quirke, Temple 168-178; L. Pantalacci and
Le temple d'El-Qal'a a Coptos,
in:
BIFAO 93 (1993)
de Tod,
in:
see saff
tomb
Embalming
hall, purification
(Cairo
les ages,
dans
le site
booth
corpse and where the associated rituals were performed. It is
Kingdom
depicted in several private tombs of the Old
(designated as ibu). These pictures indicate that the structures,
which stood
ideally
on the West Bank of the
Nile, consisted of a pillared hall
and had protected
access because of the secrecy of the rituals. Kings
probably had their
own
hall of the it
is
rooms containing
The remains of The
III
Aufrere, L'Egypte restitute 143.
complex, possibly the seh-netjer
a
Apis bulls
a
town and
a badly
Djerty (Tuphium), 20
oldest object found
is
km
damaged temple
to
south-west of Luxor.
a granite pillar of Userkaf,
at
Memphis
has ever
brick building with narrow parallel
eight stone tables,
the foreparts of a lion. (A lion
at
langages
structure for the cleansing and mummification of the
been found:
El-Tod
Month
in: Textes ex
de Monthu a travers
BIFAO 84 (1984) 81-109;
embalming ,
Vandier,
BIFAO
saison fevrier-avril 1950,
(divine booth), which was originally a reed hut. Only the
379-390.
El-Tarif
J.
l'existence des divers temples
A
LA V 38-40; Laure
and Claude Traunecker, Premieres observations sur
temple coptite d'El-Qal'a,
BIFAO 51 (1952) 80-1 10;
la
but on the smallest
an unusual feature.
in:
Barguet, Rapport de
1972) 259-265; Chr. Desroches Noblecourt, Considerations sur
well-preserved
transverse axis with a wide side-entrance which
Pantalacci
in:
Koptos and dating
rooms (including the wabet)
leads to a secondary sanctuary
1990);
m north of the temple
to Isis of
The building
the interior
normally present scale.
m, 800
Koptos, dedicated
P.
up
bed
to 4 is
m long, with a
symbol of
resurrection.)
The halls,
interpretation of valley
temples as embalming
or as their recreation in stone,
is
no more
Esna than
convincing
reconstructs the
compromise solution which
the
embalming hall on the roof of the valley
m
40
is
II).
wide and 17
The facade of the
m
Discussion by E. Drioton,
Bibliography:
in:
ASAE
40 (1940)
1007-1014; Bernhard Grdseloff, Das agyptische Reinigungszelt (Cairo 1941); Ricke,
Bemerkungen
96-98; Selim Hassan, Excavations at
II
Giza, Vol. 4 (Cairo 1943) 69-102;
the Apis bulls,
in:
J.
Dimick, The embalming house of
Rudolf Anthes, Mit Rahineh 1955 (Philadelphia
1959) 75-79; D.Arnold, Balsamierungshalle, E. Brovarski,
The Doors of Heaven,
in:
Helck,
LA
614-615;
1
Orientalia 46 (1977) 110-113;
in:
Hoffmeier, The possible origins of the tent of purification in the
Egyptian funerary
The Apis House
SAK
cult, in:
9 (1981) 167-177;
Project at Mit Rahinah,
in:
JARCE
M. and
19 (1982) 51-58;
20 (1983) 33-45; 22 (1985) 17-28; 24 (1987) 35-46; Reinigungszelt, in: Helck,
A. Jones,
D. Kurth,
LA V 220-222.
four rows of six columns, 12
built
by Ptolemy IX Soter
East
Bank of
composite
high, with
cultic
connections
Commodus 6.3
II
Isis,
and Cleopatra Cocce, on the
the Nile, near El-Hilla (Contralatopolis).
was enlarged
in the
reigns of
It
Marcus Aurelius and
by the addition of a pronaos measuring 7.4 x
m. This temple was recorded by the Napoleonic
Expedition as
still
standing, but later
victim to the
fell
construction of an administrative building in
as as well as almost
ceiling,
supported on
blocks of an earlier structure of the 18th
Dynasty are preserved. The shrine has
another sanctuary, 3.7
El-Deir.
Enclosure wall
m
is
with smaller neighbouring shrines: a small temple to
is
Towns, fortresses and palaces,
Some
capitals.
The
high.
decorated with astronomical depictions,
temple.
J.K.
Philometor and VIII Euergetes
pronaos
87
still
km
1
The Napoleonic Expedition reported
standing in parts.
It
828. There
north-west of Esna,
was destroyed
in
at
this
temple
1843
for the
all
temples and shrines, were surrounded by an enclosure wall.
The impressive walls enclosing the precinct of
Amun
Karnak
at
Nectanebo
I
(21
m
included
high, 10-12
five
m
thick) built
by
large (and five smaller)
gateways: First
pylon: gateway built by Sheshonq, possibly replaced
by a gateway of Nectanebo
I.
Northern gateway: uninscribed, perhaps 30th Dynasty. Eastern gate: Nectanebo
I
(Bab el-Melakha)
Tenth pylon: begun by Amenhotep
III
and completed by Front of the
Horemheb. Unfinished pylon of Ptolemy of
III
Roman
period pronaos of the
Khnum
temple
at
Esna
Euergetes at the temple
Khonsu (Bab el-Amara). The precinct of Month has
gateway (Bab el-Abd,
built
a
monumental northern
by Ptolemy
III
Euergetes/
Ptolemy IV Philopator), and likewise the precinct of
Mut
by Ptolemy
(built
II
Philadelphus/Ptolemy
III
Euergetes). Bibliography: la
forme
Karnak,
et in:
J.-C.
Golvin and El-Sayed Hegazy, Essai d'explication de
des caracteristiques generales des grands enceintes de
Karnak IX 145-156;
datation des portes de l'enceinte
J.-C.
-."?'
Golvin and El-Sayed Hegazy, La
d'Amon,
in preparation.
•
Reconstruction of the
Roman temple of Isis at El-Hilla
near Esna (after Description
I,
(Contralatopolis),
Plate 90)
Entrance chapel, see north chapel
Esna A town
58
km
south of Luxor, formerly
known
as
Latopolis, containing the remains of a large temple of
Khnum. The only excavated part monumental pronaos, which was
of the building erected in the
is
the
Roman
period (Claudius to Decius) in front of a Ptolemaic
temple building. The facade of the
latter
protrudes from
the rear wall of the pronaos (built by Ptolemy VI
Reconstruction of the small temple of Esna North Description
I,
Plate 88)
at EI-Deir (after
Ezbet Bashindy
88
construction of a factory at Esna. 15
stands the small
Roman temple
Bibliography: Description
I,
km
south of Esna
of Anuket at Komir.
Plates 72-83, north
Esna Plates 84-88,
Contralatopolis Plates 89-90; Serge Sauneron, Le temple d'Esna, 7 Vols (Cairo 1959-1982); Serge Sauneron, Le temple d'Esna,
langages in:
111
(Cairo 1972) 249-257;
BIFAO 83 (1983) 149-170;
M. Es-Saghir and
in:
Textes et
D. Valbelle, Komir,
Aufrere, L'Egypte restitute 256-258.
Ezbet Bashindy The
site
of a necropolis of the
Oasis, occupied by several structures, erected
external walls.
Roman
period in Dakhla
monumental
stone-built
tomb
on a square plan, with pilastered
The tomb of Qetinus has
six inner
Plan of the Middle
Kingdom temple
at
Ezbet Rushdi
chambers with inscriptions and decorations. Bibliography: Jiirgen Osing et al,
Denkmaler der Oase Dachla (Mainz
1982) 57-69.
possibly of stone.
A
strong brick wall surrounding the
complex dates from the end of the 12th Dynasty. The plan
was probably influenced by nearby temple of Canaanite
Ezbet Rushdi
A 1
site in
type
the region of Avaris where, in 1950/51
and
in
996, the remains of a brick temple of the second half of
the 12th Dynasty, 31 x 41.5
m
in size,
were found. The
structure underwent several phases of building
enlargement. In
its final
form
it
and
consisted of two large
pylon-like structures, a forecourt and a transverse hall
with two rows of
columns and
three statue shrines,
at Tell
el-Dab'a.
Bibliography: Sh.
Adam, Report on
of Antiquities at Ezbet Rushdi, Kleine agyptische Tempel Reiches,
A
in:
in:
the Excavations of the Department
ASAE 56 (1959)
207-226; M. Bietak,
und Wohnhauser des spaten
Hommages a Jean Leclant, BdE
temple of the Early Middle Kingdom
Mittleren
106 (1993) 12-14; D. Eigner,
at Tell
Ibrahim Awad,
in:
The
Nile Delta in Transition: 4th.-3rd. Millennium B.C. (Tel Aviv 1992)
69-77; a monograph on
this topic
by Peter Janosi
is
forthcoming.
F
door
False
the offering table (which developed independently in the
Throughout Egyptian
doors represented
and kings
gods
a
history, in
Egyptian architecture
magic place where the deceased, appear
could
through
a
sealed
passageway, particularly in the mastabas of the Old
Kingdom
(False
door Eg.
tomb,
false
appear
arrival of
doors were superseded by stelae. False doors
a) Occasionally false
doors are shown
(mastaba of Seshemnefer
main entrance and
realistically, as a
detail translated into stone
II at
Giza).
The
false
b)
doors
open wings
in stone.
The normal
door
is
a simpler type,
forming
thus the starting point of the mortuary
earliest
cult.
false
at the
latter
Because
at first the
king was not thought to
on
live
in the
pyramid, and pyramid temples before the 5th Dynasty were separate from
it,
southern
false
up
to that
From
time the pyramid did not
the reign of Shepseskaf, the
door moved into the royal
cult
complex,
and during the course of the 5th Dynasty the northern false
door was accommodated
The palace-facade
c)
scheintur) has
its
in the
false
origins in the large
north chapel.
door
(Ger.
Prunk-
niched tombs of the
Dynasty, which were surrounded on
number
all
sides
by a large
of palace facades (in most cases having 3 on the
and
short
and 9 on the long
The
some
as
examples consist of simple door recesses, or
main
not primarily intended for the wife of the deceased.
1st
false
the door of the house which the mastaba represents, is
at
a
southern end and a secondary one
northern end of the east side of the mastaba, the
in the court of chapels at the
precinct of Djoser are real doors with huge
shaped
at the
contain a false door.
in a variety of forms:
door with every technical
the
From the Middle new forms of
arrerut).
Kingdom, coinciding with the
2nd Dynasty). From the outset there was door
many
same time
as 7
as the
and
sides, certain others 14).
From
4 and
1 1
,
and
the 3rd Dynasty, at the
amount of niching on
the east side of
with two steps. From this developed intricately divided slabs of
limestone or granite, with multiple frames, a
drum and
a cavetto cornice
Dynasty onwards,
false
on
top.
From
the 3rd
doors bear inscriptions and
depictions relating to funerary offerings. Occasionally the
tomb owner
is
depicted, in the round, stepping out of the
door. Above the lintel a slab
Normal
false
door
(left)
was added with a depiction of
and palace-facade
false
door
of Ptahhotep at Saqqara (after Perrot and Chipiez)
(right) in the
tomb
Double
false
door with central support
of the temple of Sety
I
at
Abydos
(after
in the sanctuary of
A.M. Calverley)
Re-Horakhty
Faras
90
mastabas was reduced, a main and a secondary
false
Festschrift Ricke
door
were given more prominence by deepening, and these
R.
143-164; G. Haeny, Scheintiir,
Stadelmann, Scheintiir oder
Stele in
in:
Helck,
LA V 563-574;
Totentempeln des Alten Reiches,
MDAIK 39 (1983) 237-241; P. Janosi, Die Entwicklung und Deutung
gradually developed into the funerary offering chapels.
in:
The
des Totenopferraums in den Pyramidentempeln des Alten Reiches,
delicate structure of the highly decorated false door,
the
mastaba
(Khabausokar,
itself
into competition with the
normal
Fig.).
Here they came
Egypt
moved down into the burial chambers, where they survived, until some time in the out and from the 5th Dynasty
Egyptologists,
12th Dynasty, in the decoration of the sarcophagus recess
Faras
(tomb of Senwosretankh). Janosi sees the
A
false
door as a
chamber of
representation on the rear wall of the offering
the facade of the royal seh-netjer palace of the next
Developing
d)
in
the
is
11th Dynasty outside the
the false door with a central support
false openings;
a supraportal
im Tempel,
Seventh International Congress of
in:
Cambridge 1995 (Leuven 1998)
and two
element resembling a
1
177-1 189.
sprawling area of ruins with the remains of a town,
situated
on the West Bank of the Nile
fortress of the Middle
Kingdom
Kingdom
to the
north of Wadi
a small rectangular
is
(75 x 85 m), a
New
necropolis to the north-east, and to the south-
west the so-called Hathor Rock containing the rock
tomb
of Setau and the temple of Hathor.
The centre
is
allows entrance to the king's ba as
taken up by a fortified town with the remains of a temple
emerges from the Active palace sanctuary behind. The
of Tutankhamun, which consists of a courtyard with two
wooden lattice perhaps it
Old Kingdom (London 1985) 9-52; M. Ullmann, Die
Haifa. In the north-west there
life.
funerary sphere, especially in the 'houses of millions of years',
in the
Mittelstiitzscheintur
were forced
false door,
in:
Kurth, Tempeltagung 143-163; N. Strudwick, The Administration of
moreover, meant that they needed to be positioned inside
porticoes of two rows of seven
columns
dwelling houses (frequently a stone slab in a brick wall)
four rows of four columns,
and the sanctuary
creates the idea of the king's presence 'beyond' while the
Several hundred usurped blocks of Thutmosis
false
door
person
in the reception
in front
rooms of palaces and
performs royal functions. These 'doors'
in
in
Buhen
temple
element (Amarna). The
cartouches of Ramesses
door with a central support
III
area.
have
been found, which were probably brought there from the
dwelling houses sometimes serve simply as a decorative false
each, a hall with
at
further south; other blocks, bearing II,
probably derive from Aksha.
in
temples apparently developed from these prototypes
Bibliography: Kazimierz Michalowski, Faras I Fouilles Polonaises
in
domestic building. For that reason,
(Warsaw 1962) 17-73; Kazimierz Michalowski, Faras
in the sphere of the
gods but only
in
it
does not appear
connection with the
Polonaises 1961-1962
divine aspects of the king, marking the exit from or the
in:
entrance to his otherworldly residence.
J.
Bibliography:
L.
Borchardt, Das Grab des Menes,
93-102; Junker, Giza
III,
in:
ZAS
36 (1898)
Manuel 389-431;
Figs 33-34; Yandier,
Sylvia
1
961
II Fouilles
(Warsaw 1965) 14-38; Kazimierz Michalowski,
Kush 10 (1962) 220-224;
Lipiiiska, Faras, in: Helck,
236-237; 13 (1965) 179-180;
11 (1963)
LA
114-115; Janusz Karkowski, Faras
II
V
The Pharaonic Inscriptions from Faras (Warsaw 1981); Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 36-38.
Wiebach, Die dgyptische Scheintiir (Hamburg 1981); J-Ph. Lauer,
La signification
et
le
role des fausses-portes
tombeaux du type de Negadeh, in: MDAIK 37
Zu den
( 1
du
palais
dans
les
98 1 ) 28 1 -287; G. Haeny,
Platten mit Opfertischszenen aus Heluan
und Gizeh,
in:
Flagpole These poles standing
in recesses in
pylon facades have
their origin in the ancient standards of deities, planted in
the sacred precinct where, as symbols of the deity, they
acted as receivers of offerings. fir
and Aleppo
tip
Made probably
pine, they were in excess of 30
of Cilician
m high. The
of the pole was gilded and adorned with coloured
pennants; the foot stood on a granite base and was held in a
copper socket; half-way up,
it
was held
in place with
wooden clamps
fixed in openings in the pylon.
temple of Amun
at
temple
at
number
is
Karnak had 2x4
flagpoles; the
The Aten
Amarna 2x5;
elsewhere, in most cases the
only 2 x
2.
1
or 2 x
Flagpoles are illustrated in
several Egyptian wall paintings. Bibliography: Holscher, Medinet
Habu
III
5;
Badawy, Dessin archi-
tectural 181-188; D. Arnold, Flaggenmasten, in: Helck, Realistic false
doors in the mastaba of Seshemnefer
struction by Junker, 1938)
at
Giza (recon-
C. Traunecker,
d'Horemheb,
Karnak VII 75-92.
in:
LA
II
257-258;
Un mat du IXe pylone au nom
M. Azim and
Fortress
two Nubian rectangular fortresses of Aniba (87 x 138 m)
Floor The
floors of stone buildings consist of
paving; in brick
mud
buildings they consist of a coating of Nile
made
of unbaked
or,
gypsum
stucco):
influence
(MM
or paving
whether
III-LM
I)
this
(al secco
Kingdom. The decoration
on
any Minoan
reflects
remains disputed. Important
New
examples have survived from three palaces of the is
most respects arranged
in
as
scenes from nature (fish pond, birds in a thicket, leaping calves, plants);
central field
a)
highly detailed and laid out on a wide
it is
surrounded by subordinate areas which were
cursorily painted.
The palaces
room. (Found by Robb de
b)
P.
III
Malqata,
at
The Maru-en-pa-Aten Court'.
MMA and Munich.) Amarna;
at
in 1920.
1896
in
Fragments
Museum, Cairo, MMA and Munich.) The main palace of Amarna, in four halls of the
are in the Egyptian
'harim' area.
(Found by Flinders
In the 12th Dynasty (Senwosret
I
— III) construction
of fortresses blossomed, perhaps based on First Inter-
mediate Period military systems which no longer well as influenced
by the
exist, as
fortified Palestinian cities of the
Middle Bronze Age IIA or
I
(Sharuhen,
Tell Beit,
Mirsim,
Shekhem). The north-eastern Egyptian border was fortified far
no
from the Middle Kingdom onwards, although so
fortress buildings have
military
been found
camps have been found
there. Fortified
inside Egypt only at
el-Hudi, south-east of
A
Petrie in 1894.
Aswan.
chain of imposing fortresses,
known
The main
as the
Second
Cataract Forts, was created in the 12th Dynasty to secure
African trade routes in Upper Nubia.
T-shaped
11
(Found by Barsanti
and the Egypt Exploration Society
c)
keep surrounded by a wall and a dry moat.
and audience
Tytus in 1902. Fragments are
Egyptian Museum, Cairo,
ponds of the 'Water
a
Wadi Natrun (Qaret el-Dahr), Qasr el-Sagha and in Wadi
are:
The palace of Amenhotep
consisting of a pillared hall, throne hall
in the
and Buhen ( 150 x 170 m) were equipped, even then, with
very occasionally, fired bricks. In
palaces the floors were beautifully painted
more
91
ments, unique in the history of
Some of these monu-
fortifications,
remained
standing until 1960, but have since been submerged under
some
the floods of Lake Nasser, in
research or publication.
cases without adequate
The Cataract
West Bank of the Nile were spaced from 3
to 10
up on the
Forts set
at
distances varying
km and connected via a chain of watch towers
depiction was destroyed in 1912; a copy and fragments
by means of
Museum, Cairo and MMA.) A throne podium of Amenhotep III, with painted images of prisoners and bows on the staired ramp
have numbered from 300 to 3000 men. The fortresses
are in the Egyptian
(stairs),
was found
Samak) by
P.
Malqata (Kom
el-
the University of Waseda (Japan) expedition.
Bibliography:
Robb de
in 1974 south of
W.M.
Tytus,
Flinders Petrie,
A
Palace ofAmenhetep
Fufiboden aus
dem
(Munich 1941 );
Tell el
Amarna (London
1894);
Preliminary Report of the Re-excavation of the III
(New York
1903); Friedrich W.
Palaste des Konigs
Amenophis
D. Arnold, Fufiboden, in: Helck,
LA
von
IV.
II
Bissing,
Der
zu El-Hawata
367-368; Studies
well as
workshops and depots
for
ensured by protected
Egyptian architecture has produced innumerable military technical accomplish-
comparison with medieval
weaponry and
stairs to the Nile.
were always situated right beside the
Nile,
plan.
while the inside sloped.
castles,
at regular intervals
wooden beams
fortifications.
They had drying drainage channels throughout length.
The
exterior of the wall
had a stone casing. In
was
front
fortified at regular distances
Old and Middle Kingdoms
in
was
existence
of
sites
and palaces with
surrounding walls and turrets (divine fortress) from the period of the Unification onwards. The earliest preserved fortress
walls
date
to
Elephantine). Then, as
up
to 5
the
later,
m thick, fortified with
their
most cases of stone a keep, a wall slits.
and
Walls were
with rectangular protruding
towers. There were powerful gate structures standing far
Hieroglyphs or representations of the names of towns the
inserted
along the length and across the width.
semi-circular turrets with multiple arrow
indicate
level terrain
walls were about 5 m thick, m high and fortified with protective walkways and
or
1.
on
were
fortresses
The surrounding
10-12
acknowledged
European
The
elevations or islands having a correspondingly irregular
although their architectonic achievements have yet to be in the study of
gigantic
taking the shape of large walled rectangles, and on rocky
Walls were strengthened with
whose dimensions and
estimated to
stores for provisions. Drinking water supplies
Fortress
well bear
is
contained housing for the troops and their commander, as
vertically,
ment
Their garrison
rounded battlements. The side facing the enemy dropped
on the Palace of Malqata (Waseda University 1993), Plates 1-2.
structures
fire signals.
Old
Kingdom
fortresses
(Balat,
had brick walls
semi-circular turrets.
The
in front of the wall, with
an inner court and a gate
chamber. At Buhen, the
fort
removable drawbridge on
was equipped with
rollers over the
a
moat. There are
frequent instances of spur-like walls, fortified with towers, extending from a surrounding wall, their purpose
being to protect harbour installations breakwaters in the Nile.
etc.
and
to act as
Fortress
92
Kubban, Aniba, Faras, Serra
(Ikkur,
Khor,
Dorginarti,
Shalfak, Uronarti,
Semna,
East,
Dabenarti,
Mirgissa,
Buhen,
architecture
Askut,
neighbouring countries
Kumma and South Semna)
this
period
is
unlikely
because
at that time, in the Late
Bronze
Age, had no important fortresses. Several are nonetheless
shown Nubian
in
in
Egyptian illustrations of sieges, depicting a
military building protruding centrally above a double
fortresses
wall
Kingdom
Fort
Size
crowned with battlements. Egyptian sources and
present-day research indicate the existence of
(m)
fortified sites
Lower Nubia
many
along the 'Ways of Horus' (the desert route
out of the Nile Delta leading through north-west Sinai
Some extensive fortification New Kingdom and the Late Period exist
Ikkur
Old, Middle
and New
82x110
towards southern Palestine).
Kubban
Old, Middle
and New
70x125
systems of the
Aniba
Old, Middle
and New
87x138
near El-Hebua. At Haruvit (El-Haruba), east of the
Faras
Middle and
New
75x85
important administrative centre of Arish, a 50 x 50
Serra East
Middle
80x...
castle of the Its
walls, 4
m
m
Ramesside period has been excavated. thick, with
massive gates (High Gate),
enclosed housing quarters and stores surrounding a
Cataract Forts
A
Buhen
Old, Middle
and New
215x460
court.
Khor
Middle and
New
250 x 600
el-Balah, south of Gaza. This structure of only 20 sq
Dorginarti
New
80x194
probably several storeys high, had 15 small rooms.
Mirgissa
Middle and
Dabenarti
Middle
Askut
Middle
77x87
Shalfak
Middle
47x95
Uronarti
Middle and
New
Semna
Middle and
New
135x135
Kumma
Middle and
New
70x117
New
small Ramesside fort wa£ excavated near Deir
m, Tell
190x295 60 x 230
57x114x126 (triangular)
Bibliography:
S.
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in:
3 (1916) 155-179;
JEA
Ludwig Borchardt, Altagyptische Festungen an der
Zweiten Nihchwelle (Leipzig 1923); A. Fakhry, Wadi-El-Natrun,
ASAE 40
(1940) 845-848; G.A. Reisner, Ancient Egyptian forts
Semna and
Uronarti,
(1929) 64-75;
Semna,
in:
in: Bull,
Dows Dunham,
Dunham and
Vol. 2
Ed.,
The Egyptian
Cataract Forts, Vol.
in:
to
Jozef Janssen,
(Boston 1960);
Dows
II
(Boston 1967);
J.
Knudstad, Serra-East
Kush 14 (1966) 165-186; Badawy, Architecture,
198-230, Vol.3 446-474; William
to Africa
I
from Haifa
forts
Dunham and
Jozef Janssen, Uronarti Shalfak Mirgissa, Second
Cataract Forts, Vol.
and Doginarti,
at
of the Mus. of Fine Arts Boston 163
Kush 8 (1960) 11-24; Dows
Semna Kumma, Second
in:
Y.
Adams, Nubia Corridor
(London 1977) 175-192; A. Badawy, Festungsanlage,
in:
Helck.LAII 194-203.
2.
New Kingdom and later New Kingdom, the Nubian
In the
restored and enlarged,
fortresses were partly
and areas of housing were
enclosed in surrounding walls (Aniba, Buhen). fortresses (Dorginarti, Sesebi)
and new
New
fortification
elements were infrequent. Dry moats and bastions along the
keep were
now
considered
of
little
use
and
disappeared. Foreign influence on Egyptian fortress
Reconstruction of the system of arrow fortress at
Buhen
(after
W.B. Emery)
slits
in the
Middle Kingdom
Foundation Mor on
the Mediterranean coast, north-west of Ashdod,
was another Ramesside fortress
fort, this
one 23 sq m. Another
attested to at the Egyptian administrative seat
is
A
ritual
93
The numerous important Roman castles in Egypt (Lower Nubian southern borders, oases of the Western Desert,
Mons Claudianus and
Eastern Desert route to
the
Red
tower-like Egyptian fortification existed at
Sea, Luxor, Babylon/Old Cairo, coastal routes along the
Bethshan, the most important Egyptian centre in the
Mediterranean Sea and in the North-Western Sinai)
of
Jaffa.
north. Further forts
The western was
lie
unexplored in the northern Negev.
route, along the
also protected
by fortresses
This chain of fortifications,
terminated
Ramesses
at
in the
Ramesside period.
inadequately researched,
still
fortress of
II's
Umm
el-Raham,
west of Marsa Matruh.
Medinet Habu represents
at
surround by a
originally
m
wide, 6
and wall wall of
wall
deep and 15
turrets,
mud
m
a fortress.
III
The main temple
had a gate is
foundation ritual
pits,
but occasionally in spacious walled shafts. Finds
16.43
m high. This
Standing in front of this was a
at the centre
flanked by towers
an example of a
fortified Delta
inscription of the foundation text sealed in a clay brick,
and occasionally scarabs, amulets, linen
bronze
cloths,
figurines, faience pots etc. Rich foundation deposits have
been found
in the
Hatshepsut
temples of Mentuhotep and that of
Deir el-Bahari, and also below the
at
pyramids of Amenemhat
tombs have no
I
and Senwosret
I.
Since rock
outside corners, deposits were of
some
residence of the type later erected by Ramesside and
necessity placed at
other kings against mass foreign invasions, here intended
(such as in nine tombs in the Valley of the Kings).
for use in the next
an
important
life.
Ramesside period
m
and 375
thick
Tel el-Retaba in
heavily in
fortified
Wadi Tumilat
settlement
of
is
the
northern Egypt, with walls 9
m
long. Egyptian influence caused the
governors' residences of the 13- 12th centuries the
BC along
Canaan coast of the Mediterranean (Aphek, Deir
el-Balah, Tell el-Farah South, Tell el-Hesi, Tell Sera, Tell
Jemmeh,
Tell
Mor)
to
become
fortified castle dwellings
with an inner court and living quarters in the upper
New Kingdom,
was
a considerable
increase in the fortification of towns
and temples:
storey. After the
El-Hiba, walls 12.6 5
km
18
long and 12.1
m
there
m thick, 10 m high; El-Kab, m thick; Tanis, walls 800 m
Uvo Holscher, Das Hohe
Uvo Holscher, Medinet Habu
II
Tor von Medinet
R. Gundlach, Migdol, in:
446-474;
coastal road
L.
Habu
(Leipzig
in:
ASAE
(1947) 357-371;
Helck.LA IV 124-125; Badawy, Architecture,
Habachi, The military posts of Ramesses
and the western part of the
Delta, in:
II
on the
BIFAO 80 (1980)
13-30; E.D. Oren, 'Governors' Residencies' in Canaan under the
Kingdom, in
North
69-1
19;
in:
deposits discovered in the
some were
religious objects intended for the
benefit of the dead, material polluted by the
mummi-
had been used during
fication process or objects that
the funeral. Bibliography: G.A.Reisner.The Barkal Temples in 19 16, in: JEA 4 (1917)
213-227; W.C. Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt II (New York 1985) 84-88; Letellier,Griindungsbeigabe,in: Helck, LA
The Complete
processes,
II
JSSEA 14 ( 1985) 37-56;
E.D. Oren,
New
The 'Ways of Horus'
Sinai, in: A.F. Rainey, Ed., Egypt, Israel, Sinai (Tel Aviv 1987)
Amnon
Ben-Tor, Ed., The Archaeology of Ancient Israel
Haven-London 1991)221.
(New
B.
906-912; Nicholas Reeves,
(London 1996) 28-29, 93-94,
Valley of the Kings
Foundation
1-10; A. Badawy, Fouilles d'El
(1945-1946); Notes architecturales,
Vol. 3
many
107.
ritual ritual,
which arose out of working
was performed
at the laying
of foundation
stones for temples and tombs, theoretically by the king
together with Seshat, the goddess of measuring.
Bibliography: 1910);
deposits:
This extensive
El-Hebua).
Kab
of the
all
long,
and Persians (Defenna,
route against the Babylonians
Not
distance in front of the tombs
neighbourhood of pyramids and tombs were foundation
walls
Powerful fortresses protected the Sinai
thick.
to
protection. These were placed mostly in small
its
ceramics), also building tools, small tablets bearing an
m high, supporting a defence gallery
(High Gate). This
ensure
high, fortified by 12 corner
136 x 171
with rounded battlements. The east- and west-facing walls each
Ptolemaic period,
include offerings of food and drink (animal bones,
m thick and
at its foot.
keep with a wall 4.4
the
to
foundation deposits were placed under the corners or the
m
mud brick wall,
subsequently enclosed by a surrounding
brick 10-11
battered
is
Foundation deposit From the Old Kingdom
axis of a building as part of the
Following ancient tradition, the temple of Ramesses
was
cannot be discussed here.
Mediterranean coast,
frequently portrayed in wall reliefs and attested to
by the objects
The sequence of the the building
site,
left
as
is
It
is
further
foundation deposits.
ritual consisted of a
procession to
symbolic pegging out of the areas
concerned and orientation of the axis (stretching the cord), breaking
sand,
making
open of the
soil,
scattering of foundation
a foundation offering, placing of the
foundation deposit, painting of bricks and the laying of the foundation stone. Bibliography: A.M.
Blackman and H.W. Fairman, The consecration of
an Egyptian temple according
to the use of Edfu, in:
JEA 32 (1946)
Foundations
94 75-9
1
P.
;
Montet, Le
de fondation des temples egyptiens, in: Kind
rituel
17 (1964) 74-100; James Weinstein, Foundation Deposits in Ancient
Abd
Egypt, Dissertation (University of Pennsylvania 1973); Sanaa
el-Azim el-Adly, Das Grundungs- und Weiheritual des agyptischen Tempels von der fruhgeschichtlichen Zeit bis
(Tubingen 1981);
Reiches, Dissertation in:
LA
Helck,
II
LA 912-914; 385-386; M.
906-912;
B. Letellier,
zum Ende
B. Letellier,
The Merkhet,
in:
Neuen
Griindungsbeigabe,
Griindungszeremonien,
K. Zibelius-Chen, Tempelgriindung,
Isler,
des
in:
Helck,
in:
Helck,
of the wall on both sides. The lowest layer
is
often a bed
of bricks which stand on their long-side edges.
column bases within on
a
continuous
Rows of
brick buildings frequently stand
foundation wall. Large walls
in
cultivated land are set in deep foundation trenches. Bibliography: Jequier,
Fundament,
in:
Helck,
Manuel 33-38;
LA
II
Clark,
AEM
62-74; Arnold,
356-359; Arnold, Building 109-115.
LA VI
Varia Aegvptiaca 7 (1991) 53-67.
Foundations Foundations remained rudimentary up
to
the 3rd
Dynasty, even in the construction of step mastabas and stone
tomb
The foundations prepared
precincts.
Bent Pyramid were so inadequate
for the
that they caused
serious structural damage. Stone buildings in the Old
Kingdom were
erected on top of three layers of stone: the
sub-foundation, foundation and slightly less substantial
paving
slabs.
Meidum, had
However, pillars, including those
at
good foundations, being
set
particularly
either into a rock shaft
1
m
deep or
in a
sand
pit lined
with stone. Structures erected on rock (pyramid of
Khufu, or the temple of Mentuhotep
at
Deir el-Bahari)
were not specifically provided with foundations. From the 12th Dynasty onwards, foundations were often filled
with re-used blocks. The foundations of the hypostyle
Karnak were
hall of
filled
with multiple layers of small
An
obelisk base of Amenhotep
III in
front of the third pylon at Karnak,
constructed of stone blocks cramped together
stones (talatat, or even bricks), which recede beyond the
outer edge of the columns. Obelisks were erected on up to six layers of stone
uppermost
beams, 5-6
m
layer dowelled together.
base on top of
this
in the case of stone
The actual obelisk
Lines of rearing cobras spitting poison, which were
some cases built of bricks, even buildings. Deep underlying masonry
believed to provide apotropaic protection, are found from
is
is
a
in
and continuous foundation platforms already existed
some
places in the Old
become had
the
norm
Frieze of uraei
cube made of granite.
foundation
The sub-foundation
Frieze brick, see funerary cone
long, those in the
in
Kingdom, but they did not
until the Ptolemaic period,
when
they
the reign of Djoser onwards
on the facades of stone
temples (for example, a monumental frieze of uraei exists
on the
fac,ade of the
Ombo), and along
main temple building
at
Kom
the top of screen walls or gateways.
depth of 7-8 m. The foundations of certain
a
large temples
accommodate crypts (Dendera). Some
foundation trenches were shored-up with brick walls
during construction. Starting from the Old Kingdom the deepest foundation stratum was for preference
constructed in sand - occasionally deep piles of sand.
The
practicality of this
isolation)
was
set
(compensation against pressure,
combined with symbolism so
that the temple
up on pure sand, a kind of primeval mound. The
laying of the foundations of a temple ( stretching the cord,
hoeing the stone)
is
soil,
pouring sand, laying the foundation
part of a foundation ritual.
Brick walls invariably stand on a foundation of two or three layers of bricks which protrude slightly at the foot
Depiction of a frieze of uraei on the roof of a shrine in the temple of
Khonsu
at
Karnak
(after the Oriental Institute)
Funerary enclosure The and
carved and with inlaid
frieze appears artistically
designs on
wooden
shrines.
structures such as canopies, kiosks
Fragments of a wooden
frieze of uraei
high have been found in the temple of Sety
I at
30
cm
The palace and magazines attached
1936), Plate 54; E.B. Ghazouli, the temple of Sety
at
I
Abydos,
in:
ASAE 58
(
has not been substantiated. The existence of some
to
cm
Small clay cones (8
moulded
further south.
Old Kingdom
sites at
Buto, Balat and Elephantine, and were apparently used as architectural wall decoration.
Mesopotamian
weight to the hypothesis
lends
of
parallels
Mesopotamian
influence on early Egyptian architecture.
from the
Upper Egyptian tombs
at
Dynasty onwards (bricks, moulded,
1th
1
found
Fig.,
D; Nebunef, Fig.) These cones were inserted into the
masonry
or brickwork on the upper border of the
facade, with their bases remaining visible.
Kingdom onwards, the base was and
of the
titles
From
km
divine fortress to be used by the king in the
afterlife.
development of similar structures
at
Saqqara, or whether
the two are separate branches of the yet
same
idea, has not
been resolved. At present, the following funerary enclosures are
known, or surmised,
to
have existed (designated
A
to G,
inscribed with the
now completely
levelled.
It is
tombs of courtiers. The main entrance end of the
east side, with at least
m
surrounded by 269 is at
the southern
one secondary entrance
in the
niched. Lying outside, to the south-west, are the remains
made. The
architecture; special corner bricks were also
Djer: A', east of the Peribsen structure, 53.80 x 96.2 in size,
New name
curious shapes, depending on their position in the
cm
el-Ga'ab, 1.7
They may be representations of a par-
tomb
the
tomb owner. Cones sometimes assume
longest cones are 52
functional connection
Umm
independent of their royal ownership):
These early cones may have developed into the much larger funerary cones
at
Whether these funerary enclosures influenced the
long) with dish-like bases are
late pre-historic to
of perishable materials,
some
with the tombs of the kings
a
known from
made
cannot be excluded. The funerary enclosures did not
ticular type of structure of the Early Dynastic Period, as
1964) 149, Plate 20.
Funerary cone, see a/so bricks,
funerary enclosures,
earlier
serve as tombs, but they had
Abydos.
Bibliography: Jean-Philippe Lauer, La pyramide a degres (Cairo
95
north wall. There
is
evidence that the facade was
of a niched shrine. Djet: 'B', east
of Peribsen and Djer, a precinct
measuring 47.5 x 90 m, surrounded by 154 tombs of Not
courtiers.
yet excavated.
Merineith: 'C (according to
in length.
Petrie,
Kemp and
ZAS 70
O'Connor), to the east of Shunet el-Zebib and the
(1934) 25-35; N. de Garis Davies and M.F.L. Macadam,/! Corpus of
'West Mastaba', a structure measuring 22.5 x 66.5 m,
Inscribed Egyptian Funerary Cones (Oxford 1957); A. Eggebrecht,
surrounded by the tombs of courtiers.
Bibliography:
Grabkegel,
Buto
I
in:
1
Borchardt
Helck,
New
(LondonNekropole
L.
LA
et al, Friesziegel in
II
Grabbauten,
in:
857-859; Lise Manniche, Lost Tombs
York 1988); Friederike Kampp, Die thebanische
(Mainz 1996) 66-68; Thomas von der Way,
Tell el-Fara'in.
Udimu to D.
(Den): 'C (according to
W Kaiser); according
O'Connor, a building not yet discovered between A/B
and Deir
Sitt
Damiana.
Semerkhet or a successor: the remains of a massive
(Mainz 1997) 232-236.
north wall, immediately east of Shunet el-Zebib. Not
Funerary enclosure Crowded together
excavated.
northern
Anedjib or a predecessor: the 'West Mastaba', a
el-Sultan, are
medium-sized brick structure, measuring 28.2 x 66.5 m.
in the flat fore-desert of the
necropolis of Abydos, to the west of
Kom
the funerary enclosures of the kings of the 1st
and 2nd
from King Djer onwards. The
earliest
Dynasties,
buildings were constructed of perishable materials a'nd their locations are only recognisable
because of the
secondary tombs around them. From the reign of Udimu (or Den), funerary enclosures in the
become more
elaborate,
form of powerful niched structures of brick.
The main entrance was on the
particularly elaborate
east side, at the southern end. Inside the precincts of
Khasekhemwy and
Peribsen,
free-standing
brick
buildings have been discovered, behind the main entrance in the south-east corner, which perhaps housed a statue of the king.
shallow
The discovery announced of
a
mound in the funerary enclosure of Khasekhemwy
Plan of the funerary enclosure of Zebib)
Khasekhemwy
at
Abydos (Shunet
el-
Funerary palace
96
north wall; there are also two smaller gateways
and south. Behind the eastern entrance
at
west
are a 'palace'
and
other brick structures. There are also the remains of a
mound
>«
i
in
\
covered with bricks. From 1991,
end of the north-east boats, 30
at
Abydos
King Khasekhem probably at
now
a village site
Peribsen:
'E',
Khasekhemwy; entrance
at
it
Sitt
Damiana, measuring 70 x
and not presently
investigated.
the 'Middle Fort' situated north of
measures 50 x 90
+
.
.
.m, with
the southern end of the east side
one secondary entrance
in the south wall.
south-eastern entrance
a 'palace'.
Khasekhemwy: 65 x
1
25
m and
still
is
'F, the
east wall
and
main
at least
Behind the
m, with a large gateway at the southern end of the east
The impressive ruin of the building
Bibliography:
B.J.
Kemp, Abydos and
standing to a height of 7.5 m.
and the other
at the
at the
It
in:
des Djoser-Grabmals, G. Dreyer,
Umm
Kbnigsfriedhof.
el
2.
in:
B.J.
Abydos,
pyramid
New
in:
eastern end of the
the First
Kemp, The Egyptian
in
MDAIK
1st
Abydos and zur Baugeschichte
25 (1969) 10-13; W. Kaiser and
Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im fruhzeitlichen Vorbericht,
in:
MDAIK
38 (1982) 211-269;
MDAIK 28
(
1972 ) 95-99;
Funerary Enclosures (Talbezirke) of the Early Period
JARCE 26 (1989) 51-86;
D. O'Connor, Boat graves
origins, in: Expedition 33 (1991) 5-17.
has a
southern
preserved.
Tombs of
Antiquity 41 (1967) 22-32; W. Kaiser,
W. Helck, Zu den 'Talbezirken' in Abydos, in: D. O'Connor,
is still
the Royal
JEA 52 (1966) 13-22;
in:
Zu den koniglichen Talbezirken
at
Shunet el-Zebib, measuring
double wall with two main entrances, one
end of the
its
another niched
built
Hierakonpolis, measuring 65.4 x
74.7
Dynasty,
Qa: perhaps 'G\ Deir
wooden
wall.
Dynasty royal cemetery,
100 m;
northern
m long, has been found.
funerary enclosure
Niched enclosure wall of the funerary enclosure of Khasekhemwy
at the
side, a fleet of at least 12
Funerary palace, see divine fortress, funerary enclosure
and
G tomb
Gallery The term
Gateway, see a/so door, pylon tomb' (as distinct from saff tomb)
'gallery
is
monumental gateways take
Strikingly
the form of
applied to the funerary complexes of the 2nd Dynasty
pylons, with the actual structure of the gateway flanked
at
Saqqara, which have extensive subterranean
by towers. These structures are usually an integral part of
galleries
where innumerable magazine chambers branch
kings
from a main corridor up
off
to
400
structure above ground probably
niched mastaba. According gallery
to the kings'
a)
tombs
at
Hetepsekhemwy
The super-
it,
protruding above
in a
manner
A
120
similar
include:
Unas pyramid. The superhas completely disappeared. The associated
gallery directly in front of the
structure
enclosure, which
Sekhemkhet
probably lay to the west of the
precinct,
b) Ninetjer:
A
is
gallery
unresearched.
tomb
outside the south-eastern
corner of the Djoser precinct. The associated enclosure
is
believed to be situated in the 'Qisr el-Mudir' (340 x 590
m), west of the Sekhemkhet precinct. c)
Reneb
gallery
This
(?):
may have been
tomb
is
part of a temple
Examples of
all
Amun
the wall or
as
three forms exist
precinct at
Karnak
and other major sanctuaries. S.
Sauneron, La porte ptolemaique de I'enceinte de Mout
a Karnak (Cairo 1983); Aufrere, L'Egypte restitute
38-39, 82-83, 86-87, 99,
1
16, 142,
154
1
(Paris 1991)
etc.
Gebel Abu Fedah (Gebel Abu Foda) The
largest of
East
Bank of
all
the Egyptian limestone quarries on the
the Nile, between Manfalut
and Amarna.
Finds there comprise quarry inscriptions and draft sketches of capitals. Bibliography: G. Legrain, Notes archeologiques prises au Gebel
attested to by a stela.
situated
when
same height
the it.
within the enclosure of the
Bibliography:
m long, 7 m deep
building;
enclosure, on the other hand, gateways are free-standing
structures, either
Abydos. Gallery tombs or Reneb:
main temple
the
Stadelmann every have an associated
to
to the west of
long.
was an elongated,
R.
to
tomb can be expected
funerary enclosure
m
The
below the western part of
Fodah,
ASAE
in:
Kelck.IA
II
Abou
1(1900) 1-14; R. Gundlach, Gebel Abu-Foda,
in:
432; Klemm.Steine 130-138.
the Djoser precinct. d)
may
Khasekhemwy: This
gallery
tomb
(area 90 x
400 m)
Gebel Adda, see Abahuda (Abu Hoda)
have been below the western half of the Djoser
precinct.
Some
of the subterranean rooms, which have
received only scant investigation, remain
may
goods. Remains of the superstructure integrated in the Djoser precinct.
It
full
of grave
have been
consisted, possibly, of
an elongated mastaba, divided lengthwise into three, the central portion covering the side sections slightly vaulted roof.
been
visible
The niched eastern
by means of a
side
would have
from the west side of the courtyard in the
Djoser precinct court. The associated enclosure
may have
lain directly to the west.
Gebel Barkal A temple city of Amun
km
III
(Cairo 1939) 53-54, Plate 22; Lauer, Histoire
R.
Stadelmann, Die Konigsgraber der
2.
monumentale 56-59;
Dynastie in Sakkara,
in:
the foot of a distinctive Cataract. A large
hill,
650
number
of buildings erected there from the reign of Thutmosis
111
onwards form the southernmost examples of pure Egyptian temple architecture. The remains were recorded
by Reisner, who used the following numbering system:
Hemispeos
B.200:
Tefnut and Bastet or
of Taharqa dedicated to Hathor,
Isis,
with Hathor
pillars.
Hemispeos of Taharqa above an
B.300:
Bibliography: Jean-Philippe Lauer, La pyramide a degres, Complements
at
south of Aswan at the Fourth
Thutmoside structure dedicated
to
earlier
Mut, with an entrance
kiosk, Bes pillars and Hathor columns. B.500:
The
central structure, the large Ipet-sut of a 150
m
Amun
long sandstone building, whose
Melanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar, (Cairo 1985) 295-307; Stadelmann,
of Napata,
Pyramiden 31-37.
origins go back to the reign of Tutankhamun/Horemheb;
was
Gargoyles, see water spouts
is
later extended in the reigns of Sety
I
and Ramesses
it
II.
Further restructuring took place under Egyptian rule,
Gebel el-Ahmar
98
followed by repeated Meroitic restorations.
An
sphinxes, with rams' heads, leads to the
pylon, which
is
50
m
(B.551).
Beyond
this is a
spacious court with pillared
barque station of
BC
(B.501) at
its
centre.
same pylon/court combination earlier
avenue of
wide, with an entrance kiosk of Amanishakheto
halls along every side, with a
century
first
is
Beyond
the 3rd
this court the
repeated, dating to an
construction phase, with a barque kiosk of
Tanutamun (B.502)
in the centre. This
followed by a
is
Bank, mainly of the
Bank
the West
type) of Horemheb.
pillars, a
lie
the
I
102, Text IV 84; H.A. Sayce, Excavations at Gebel
(
1907) 97-105; Ricardo Caminos and T.G.H. James,
Gebel Es-Sibilah
at
Napatan terrace temple above an earlier building of the 18th Dynasty - perhaps a sed- festival kiosk.
Tempel,
B.600:
B.800:
the north
LD
es-Silsile, in:
Theban
to
ASAE 8
assorted angles, with a granite altar of Taharqa.
(?),
m
which has a number of granite columns. Bibliography:
Amun
has a facade of four
unexplored remains of another temple of Horemheb,
the original construction,
B.700: Building of Atlanersa
latter
carved cult images (Amun, Mut, Khonsu, Sobek, Taweret,
Thoth and the king). 450
Silsila, in:
dedicated to
The
transverse hall and a sanctuary with seven rock-
and beyond
comprising a pylon and a group of sanctuaries arranged
onwards. Situated on
cenotaphs (rock chapels) of the
18th Dynasty and the rock temple (speos of the rock
tomb
third pylon with a pillared hall (two rows of five pillars) this again lies
New Kingdom
are 33
in:
I:
Helck,
ZAS
1
The Shrines (London 1963); R. Caminos, Gebel
LA
II
441-447;
15 (1988) 43-45;
R.
Klemm, Vom Steinbruch zum
Klemm, Steine 242-266.
and Senkamanisken,
with an entrance kiosk.
Temple of Kashta or Pi(ankhi) dedicated
to the
Triad.
B.1800:
A
Meroitic
Other structures
ambulatory temple. at this
site
consisted of Napatan
Many
palaces and administrative buildings. inscriptions
historical
and sculptures removed from Soleb have
also been found here.
On
the West
Bank of the
extensive ruins of the Napatan palace
Nile are the
town
of
Sanam
with a larger temple of Taharqa dedicated to the local
form of Amun/The Bull of the Land of the Bowmen. Bibliography: GA. Reisner,
The Barkal temples,
JEA 4 (1917)
in:
213-227; 5 (1918) 99-112; 6 (1920) 247-264; Dows Dunham. The Baikal Temples (Boston 1970);
Gebel Barkal,
in:
Gebel Barkal,
T.
Kendall,
The Napatan palace
Egypt and Africa (London 1991) 302-313; in:
Helck,
LA
11
Wenig.
434-440; Hein. Ramessidische
Bautdtigkeit 65-67; Timothy Kendall, 7th Inter. Conference for
St.
at
The Gebel Barkal temples,
in:
Gebelein Remains of an important settlement dating back historic times, situated
on
rocky ridge 28
a
Luxor. There are the remains,
in the
to pre-
south of
form of
relief
fragments, of a totally destroyed temple dedicated to
Hathor dating from the
1st
Dynasty. Pieces of the outer reliefs
and many
names from Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
to those of
limestone casing bear important
Nubian Stadia (Geneva 1990).
km
royal
Gebel el-Ahmar, see a/so quartzite
the Third Intermediate Period. There are also remains
Quartzite quarries south-east of Abbassiya (Cairo), in use
of a fortification of the Third Intermediate Period
from the Old Kingdom onwards. Rock inscriptions and incomplete sculptures, erection of
modern
now
largely destroyed
buildings over the
site,
by the
have been
Bibliography: Clark,
LA
II
AEM
433-434;
agyptischer Steine,
in:
D.
SAK
30-32; E Gomaa, Gebel el-Ahmar,
and
MDAIK
R.
7 (1979)
pharaonischen Steinbriiche des in:
now
tomb of
Iti
with painting (11th Dynasty;
in Turin).
Bibliography: D. Wildung, Gebelein,
found here.
Helck,
(stamped bricks of Menkheperre - brick stamps), and the pillared
in:
Klemm, Herkunrtsbestimmung 120-121;
Silifizierten
D.
and
R.
Sandsteins
Klemm, Die in
Agypten.
Civilization. Religious Beliefs L.
in:
(Egyptian
Helck.
LA
Museum
II
447-449; Egyptian
of Turin 1988) 85-99;
Morenz, Zur Dekoration der fruhzeitlichen Tempel
am
Beispiel zweier
Fragmente des archaischen Tempels von Gebelein,
in:
Kurth,
Tentpeltagung 2 1 7-238.
40 (1984) 207-220. Klemm, Steine 284-289.
Gebel el-Silsila (Silsileh) A range of sandstone hills, 70 km through which the Nile has cut
its
Gerf Hussein A hemispeos of Ramesses
II
in
Lower Nubia, 90
km
north of Aswan,
south of Aswan, erected by Setau, the viceroy of Kush,
course. There are
dedicated to the king, Ptah-Tatenen, Hathor and, most
extensive sandstone quarries, especially on the East
importantly, to Ptah of
Memphis.
Grain store, silo An avenue
of ram-headed sphinxes leads from the
Nile to the first
pylon which,
free-standing.
is
courtyard beyond,
like the
The courtyard
surrounded by an
is
columns and eight statue
interesting combination of six
The rear section of the building, 43
pillars.
m in depth,
is
carved out of the rock, and resembles the great temple of
Abu
belonging to a prince from the time of Khufu/Khafre.
Along the east-facing side stand two the south having an interior
a6x6
cult structures, that to
room with
a funerary offering
m deep leads to m rock chamber. The superstructure incomplete.
chapel added later in front of
it.
A shaft 40
is
Bibliography: Reisner, Giza 414-416.
Simbel, with a pillared hall featuring two rows of
three statue pillars and - unusually - four statue
Giza mastaba 2370
recesses, each with divine triads along the long sides.
The 21 x 23
Beyond
this lie the hall of the offering table
barque chamber with four
cult statues
and the
(originally
and Hathor
gilded) of Ptah, Ramesses, Ptah-Tatenen
carved out of the rock. Sections of the temple were cut out of the rock in 1964 and transferred to Elephantine; the remainder
is lost
in
M.A.L. Tanbouli
et al.,
m mastaba of Senedjemib/Inti at Giza (reign
of Unas). The core consists entirely of rooms. There
door recess with
a pair of
J.
Jacquet, H. El-Achiri,
Gerf Hussein, 3 Vols (Cairo 1974-75, 1978);
Wildung, Gerf Hussein,
Helck,
in:
LA
II
534-535; Hein,
and a
a six-pillared hall, each with a large serdab
Bibliography: Reisner, Giza 264-265.
mastabas of the Early Dynastic Period
Giza,
(Nazlet El-Batran)
A necropolis on the southern slope of the rocky eminence Early Dynastic Period mastabas. Situated in the at
Giza (Gizeh)
chamber beneath
A
magazines.
the desert edge
1st
necropolis west of Cairo set on a high limestone
and
its
south-facing slope, which together with
necropoleis in Egypt.
It
is
one of the most important
has a unique group of early stone
54
m)
(Ankhhaf Baefba,
beamed
a
A huge
niched
ceiling
mud
area
of the
and two rows of two
brick mastaba (area 28 x 1 )
with
on an elevation further
to
Bibliography: G. Daressy, I'n edifice archaique a Nezlet Batran,
in:
similar to Beit Khallaf stands
ASAE 6
the royal households of these kings
flat
mud brick mastaba
of the 3rd Dynasty ('Covington's Tomb' No.
Harmakhis temple and hundreds of mastabas and rock tombs of the 4-6th Dynasties, among them the complexes of the royal families and
niched
a
entrance stairs and a habitation-like burial system
the west.
the
is
Dynasty (21 x 48 m) with a timber-lined burial
pyramid and cult precincts of Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure and Khentkawes I, the great Sphinx,
constructions', the
historically significant
cult
chamber.
Ghurob (Abu Ghurob), see Niuserre
Saqqara and Thebes
a
south of the pyramids (the South Field) with several
Ramessidische Bautatigkeit 9-11.
plateau
is
columns, an antechamber and
Lake Nasser.
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 22-28;
D.
99
ASAE
(
1905) 99-106; M.D. Covington, Mastaba
mount
excavations,
6 (1905) 193-218; W.M. Flinders Petrie, Gizeh and Rifeh
(London 1907) 1-9; Karl Kromer, Nezlet Betran. Eine Mastaba aus
dem Alten
Reich bei Giseh (Vienna 1991
).
Giza mastaba 2000, Giza mastaba 2370, Hemiunu, Nensedjerkai, Rawer). Associated pyramid towns and royal residences in the fertile area have disappeared. a few
monuments
Only
of a later period exist here and there
('Campbell's Tomb', Tjary).
Some large tombs of an
early
period exist to the south (Giza, mastabas of the Early
Grain store, silo Grain stores were very important in the Egyptian
economy. They appear three
chambers
caused by medieval building
has openings for
Bibliography (refer to individual monuments, as there overview): Reisner, Giza
I;
Junker, Giza XII
11-312 (complete bibliography up
PM
1-27;
to 1973); Christiane
au deuxi'eme millenaire (Cairo 1976); Christiane M. Helck,
LA
II
M.
III,
is
Part
no 1,
Zivie, Giza
Zivie, Gisa, in:
602-614; M. Lehner, The development of the Giza
necropolis: the
Khufu
Project, in:
MDAIK41
(1985) 109-143.
and
at
temples in
from the Old Kingdom onwards, as long, vaulted
a)
Dynastic Period). Some buildings have suffered damage activities in Cairo.
in settlements
main forms: in parallel rows, sharing
close to the
filling
ground
one
flat
and hatches used
roof which
for
emptying
(vault, Fig.);
b) from the Middle
Kingdom, groups of usually three
rows of three square interconnected chambers, probably with vaulted roofs, with a working space
Nubian fortresses where
in front in the
of the 12th Dynasty and at
their capacity
Kahun,
was approximately 300 cu
m
per
house.
Giza mastaba 2000 The
largest stone
(53.2 x
mastaba of
105 m), of
c)
From
the Middle
Kingdom onwards
are found free-
the 4th Dynasty at Giza
standing, beehive-shaped cupolas of brick, often built in
anonymous ownership, probably
groups and constructed of concentric rows of brick
Granite
100
corbelling. Their brick floors are sunk slightly below
ground
level.
The diameter
2.5-8 m, and
at
is
usually 2-3
Medinet Habu up
m (at Amarna
to
8.9 m),
and
The type most used granite'
also
from Aswan,
capacity was up to 400 cu m. Openings for filling at the
incorrectly
apex, which were capable of being sealed, were accessible
Granite
Tell
Middle Kingdom granary
el-Arnarna, 334, Fig. 44;
buildings, in:
ZAS
E.M. Husselman, The granaries of Karanis, Philolog. Soc. 1
known
Egyptian architecture
A
is
is
red 'rose
used darkish grey variant,
less
granodiorite or quartzdiorite,
as syenite (Syene
= Aswan).
a hard stone frequently used in Egyptian
is
architecture from the 1st Dynasty onwards, especially in
via a ladder or stairs. Bibliography: Borchardt,
in
from Aswan.
B.J.
Kemp, Large
113 (1986) 120-136;
in: Trans,
of the American
83 (1952) 56-73; Le Ramesseum. Les annexes nord-ouest
the reigns of
Shelal).
It
was
utilised
Aswan between
most
precincts of the Old
corridors
(Documentation Center, Cairo 1976).
Khufu and Menkaure. The main source
the cataract region of
particularly in the
Kingdom
and chambers
the city
in
is
in
and
pyramid
for outer coverings,
pyramids, portcullis
structures, sarcophagi, false doors, paving, thresholds
Granite
and door frames, columns, architraves,
A
to
deep-lying granular stone consisting of felspar, quartz,
mica, hornblende and pyroxene; specific gravity 2.6-3.2.
be used
for a long
later
continuing
time in thresholds, naoi and
obelisks and in colossal statues. In the Late Period
to roof
Grain
store. A: reconstruction
important house
at
Kahun;
of a grain store with parallel barrel vaults and openings for
C: reconstruction of a silo of the
New Kingdom
filling
and emptying;
B:
group of store rooms from an
Gypsum, gesso and the 30th Dynasty granite experienced a renaissance
1927) 3-4; D. Arnold, Gurob,
as a construction material (naoi, temple of Bubastis,
Harim-Palace
at
in:
Helck,
Medinet el-Ghurab,
LA
in:
II
ZAS
922-923;
B.J.
!
101
Kemp, The
105 (1978) 122-133.
Iseum). Bibliography: Clark, Helck,
LA
II
AEM 24-30;
Lucas,
AEMI
57-59; W. Helck,
in:
Guttering, see drainage
892-893; Arnold, Building 36-40; De Putter, Pierres
Gypsum, gesso
81-86; Klemm, Steine, 305-353.
This mineral has been used since pre-historic times
(Maadi
Gurob A town,
fortress, palace
of the
necropolis
Ramesses
III)
at
and temple precinct and
New Kingdom (Thutmosis
III-
the entrance to the Faiyum, which
consisted of a square-shaped enclosure (233 x 238
m)
with two lengthy parallel buildings, originally thought to
be temples, but now believed
to
be a palace. Sanctuaries
mined
culture).
The Faiyum gypsum bed was already
in the Early
many Gypsum
Dynastic Period, but
appears in
places in crystal form
surface.
is
baked
of the precincts, including the foundations, had already
ceiling plaster
been destroyed
temples and tombs;
1889/90 and 1920. The
wooden head
of
site
was the find spot of the
Queen Tiye and other important
Bibliography: W. Flinders Petrie, Kahun, Gurob,
1890) 32-36;
objects.
and Hawara (London
Guy Brunton and Reginald Engelbach, Gurob (London
150-200°C. Sometimes to
produce a
brilliant
Some Old Kingdom samples have been found to be Gypsum was used for wall and
can nonetheless be attested to here. Other interior parts
the time of Petrie's excavations in
also
shade of white.
particularly pure (99.5%).
at
at
gypsum was mixed with lime
gypsum
on the desert
repair material shift
and and
as a base for paintings in houses, it
also served as a binding
to
medium,
form a lubricant with which
to
stone blocks.
Bibliography: Lucas,
AEMI 76-79; C. Traunecker, Gips, in: Helck, L4
599-660; Arnold, Building 292-293.
II
H Hakoris chapel
foundations. The building probably had a raised central
An unusual barque first
pylon
at
station of Hakoris in front of the
Karnak. This barque shrine
of a transverse hall open at the front. parallel it.
is
in the
A kiosk
form
of two
rows of three papyrus columns stands in front of
Gaps are provided
in the
bow
first
from the north and taken out
Bibliography: Jean Lauffray,
Traunecker
et al.,
von Karnak (Leipzig 1905) 30-32; W. Helck, Annalensaal,
LA
1
Helck,
in:
280-281.
Hall of
audiences
The throne room of the
king, attested to in inscriptions
beginning in the Middle Kingdom, with actual halls of
sideways from the west.
fouilles, {'architecture, le
Bibliography: L. Borchardt, Zur Baugeschichte des Amonstetnpels
intercolumnar screen walls
north and west in such a way that the barque had to be introduced
with basilica-type windows.
aisle
La chapelle d'Achdris a Karnak
I,
des
mobilier et I'anastylose (Paris 1995); Claude
La chapelle d'Achdris a Karnak II, 2 Vols
(Paris 1981
).
audiences surviving from the 18th Dynasty onwards, for at Amarna and at Medinet Habu and other 'houses of millions of years' at Thebes,
instance in the cult palaces
at
Malqata and
that of
Merenptah
at
Memphis. Working
from the evidence of these examples, they seem been structures made of brick, with four
to have
columns
to six
supporting three lengthwise barrel vaults. In the centre of the rear wall stood an elaborately decorated throne dais,
with stepped ramps
room
at
the front
and the
sides.
The
central
of the houses of wealthy private individuals was in
fact a simplified version of this type of Bibliography: R. Stadelmann, Audienzhalle,
in:
columns, see hypostyle
Hall of
Harmakhis temple
chamber. Helck.
at
I
554.
hall
(Giza)
Remains of a monumental stone temple
Sphinx
LA
east of the great
Giza. This structure, 44.7 x 52.5 m, with an
unusual plan, provides important evidence building activities in the Old
pyramid temples. The
Kingdom
for
temple
other than
facade, devoid of niching,
is
topped by an early form of cavetto cornice. The core of the walls
is
partly carved out of the native limestone
and cased with granite blocks. Like the valley temple of
Khafre next
interior,
which
to is
it,
this
temple has two entrances
10 seated colossal figures of the king. Chapel of Hakoris
at
Karnak (drawing by
R.
Mangado/J. Lauffray, 1995)
A
Annals
barques
at
in
steps towards the interior (door
recess), suggesting an east-west orientation of the
rectangular hall built by Thutmosis
hall of
Chambers with
monolithic granite pillars open to the east and the west
and descend Hall of
to the
dominated by a central courtyard with
III in
front of the
Karnak, with the two heraldic
and containing the
annals' of the king's
pillars
campaigns and
complex, following the course of the sun. The great
Sphinx immediately beyond indicates the association between the sun and the king. The temple may have
Hathor been erected by Khufu
more
or,
likely,
by Khafre.
It
remained incomplete. Bibliography: Ricke, Harmachistempel;
Helck,
LA
II
Assmann, Harmachis,
J.
in:
Hathor column, sistrum column
pillar,
Museum museum gardens:
5.
Sydney Nicholson
6.
Cairo JE 72134,
more
eight
the site (Bubastis) pieces of
at
capitals.
Bibliography: Labib Habichi, E.R.
discovered 1939,
m, width 0.97 x 150 m.
height 1.43
Labib Habachi saw
992-996.
103
Tell
Basta (Cairo 1957), Plates 18-20;
Russman, Eternal Egypt (London-New York 2001 21 1 -214. )
Hathor
pillar,
column A type of
Hathor column, sistrum column formed
pillar or
out of the fetish
associated with female deities (Hathor,
widely used from the Middle
Bastet),
Isis,
Kingdom onwards. The
capital has the appearance of a sistrum, hence
sometimes
called a 'Hathor-sistrum capital',
it
is
and
is
formed with back-to-back Hathor faces on two or four sides,
each topped by the sistrum (a divine chapel
between two appears on
found queen)
in the at,
spirals). Occasionally the
pillars
for
in partial relief.
Harwa A monumental Theban tomb
of the Nubian Period
(TT
37).
etc.,
in
and from the Late Period
birth houses. Hathor
pillars in
Giza
The subterranean complex
following sequence:
Isis,
example, Bubastis, Serabit el-Khadim,
onwards, especially
at
pillars are
temples of female deities (Hathor,
Hatshepsut temple
Reconstruction of the Harmakhis temple
Hathor motif
Hathor
is
laid out in the
sun court, entrance
two
recess,
pillared halls and a corridor which runs around the
whole complex. The tomb, which incomplete and
its
is
superstructure
is
65 x 75
m in area,
is
destroyed.
Bibliography: Eigner, Grabbauten 37-40; Tiradritti, Three years of
research in the
tomb of Harwa, in: Egyptian Archaeology 13(1 998 3-6. )
Hathor-headed Capitals of Bubastis A famous group of six granite Hathor capitals, generally attributed
the
to
Dynasty.
12th
Whereas
Naville
distinguished a larger and a smaller group, Labib
Habachi thought that they were variations of the same group (height Naville).
'little
From
above 7
this height
feet'
it
or 2.15
m, according
to
can be estimated that the
columns may have been 6-8
m
high. Their current
locations are as follows: 1.
Boston 89.555
2.
British
3.
Louvre E 10590
4.
Berlin 10834, usurped
Museum
1107 Hathor column from the pronaos of the Hathor temple
by Osorkon
I
(after Description IV, Plate 12)
at
Dendera
"
,
Hatnub
104
some temples up
to 14
Fig.);
of the Ptolemaic and
Roman
they are found in combination with composite
Bibliography: Jequier,
Labib Habachi,
MDAIK II
Hatshepsut temple (Deir el-Bahari) The Djeser-djeseru, Hatshepsuts 'house of millions of years', is one of the most important and idiosyncratic
periods are
m high and richly decorated (Dendera,Iseum -
capitals (Opet temple, kiosk of Nectanebo at Philae
LA
I
Tell
Manuel 184-193;
Ricke,
Bemerkungen
1
Basta (Cairo 1957), Plates 18-20; H. Bakri,
28 (1972), Plate 22; G. Haeny, Hathor-Kapitell,
creations of Egyptian temple architecture.
).
the result of several changes of plan.
71-84;
in the reign
in:
of Thutmosis
the temple of
Helck,
in:
II, its
Mentuhotep
dotted lines on the plan).
1039-lo41.
It
It
Its
structure
is
was possibly begun
form heavily influenced by
shown
(earlier parts are
acquired
in
present form in
its
the reign of Hatshepsut, undergoing considerable change
Hatnub
in the process; the
Alabaster quarry used from the Old Kingdom
Kingdom, quarry P
situated south-east of
is
a pit 55 x 85
m
to the
New
Hathor sanctuary,
for
later addition. Instead of the traditional
example, was a
sequence of
first
Amarna. The main
pylon, courtyard, second pylon and pillared hall, a
m
sequence of two terraces was used here, not fronted by the
in area,
and 16
in depth.
There are remains of workmen's accommodation and a
usual pylons but by open-fronted pillared halls.
transportation route.
from the design of the temple of Mentuhotep on which
Bibliography: Rudolf Anthes, Die Felsinschriften von Hatnub 1928); W.K. Simpson, Hatnub, in: Helck,
A
survey of Hatnub,
in:
Amarna
Reports
LA 1043-1045; III
(
was based
Leipzig
in
having the king's
location (not far away, within the
I.M.A. Shaw,
tomb
hill
It
causeway, 37
Kkmm,Steine 216-219.
m
behind the temple,
A
long
wide, starts at the partially preserved
statue
chamber
barque sanctuary vestments
local
S
|-=^\— J&sdlnSlnRp
offemgs Chamber
,
Jri-
nJlnllrdLnllri^
form of Amun 7^-
.
0©@^@®@©:::1
__r_li:..@:®© @lOf--@€c#
—
^
Hatshepsut
Thutmosis
I
T£
B
festival
3 600®0^ r^
1
court
^r©©d@©©©= j--fc©©©.-©
;
Icultpalace
,v/
1
i
i
y -&-WW"&-frWWW^Wft W #^W W"^ WV'WV tf B :
/*,.:/
|HM|
;/
Plan and section through the upper terrace of the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari
:
::
it
a separate
in
but accessed from the Valley of the Kings).
(London 1986) 198-212;
differs
:
::
:
r
:
Heliopolis
valley temple and ascends to the terraced temple
bottom of the
situated at the
cliff face.
is
J.
fenced in by sphinxes. At the other end
The
opens out into
it
halls
whose
rear.
A ramp
two
1979, 1980, 1985, 1991
);
Aufrere, L'Egypte restitue'e 156-161:
Une representation inconnue de
Wysocki, in:
Temple de Hatshepsut
at the
Wysocki, Deir el-Bahari seasons,
(1992) 435-485;
is
J.
la
ET
a Deir el-Bahari, in:
Pawlicki,
in:
ET
14 (1990) 15-28;
14 (1990) 321-347; 16
Karkowski, Deir el-Bahari, Temple of Hatshepsut:
Egyptological studies 1977-1980,
leading
F.
Fete d l'Hippopotame Blanc dans
le
in:
ET 14
(1990) 349-392.
flanked by side-walls in the shape of serpents
The upper
falcons.
terrace
taken up by
is
monumental
the principal structure, having a
courtyard behind
hypostyle) completely
{not a
surrounded by two rows of 16-sided pillars (three rows
on the west-facing
side).
The
rear wall has eight large
and
ten smaller recesses for royal statues. Situated in the
barque chamber and
centre, within the rock, are the for the cult
Amun-Re and
images of
South of the pillared
hall
lie
Thutmosis
father
A
I,
and
a
lies
Hawawish The extensive necropolis
site
of Panopolis, in use from pre-
historic times, in the fore-desert
and on
a high
mountain
spur north-east of Akhmim. There are rock First
Intermediate Period and the
pillared facades
tombs of the Middle Kingdom with
and transverse pillared
halls.
the queen.
two funerary offering
(Warminster 1980-90); Klaus Kuhlmann, Materialien zur Archdologie
and
Hatshepsut
for
Geschichte des
Raumes von Achmim (Mainz 1983) 52-71.
in front of these a small
building connected with the sun cult,
containing a well-preserved altar dedicated to ReHorakhty,
III
Bibliography: Naguib Kanawati, The Rock Tombs of El Hawawish, 9 Vols
chambers, both with a corbelled vault,
cult palace.
Amenemhat
Hawara, see
pillared
frontage of 26 colossal statue pillars of Hatshepsut, with
and her
Z.
(1984) 329-349; 41 (1985) 293-307; 42 (1986) 213-228;
Z.
ramp
139-153;
13 (1983)
Hatshepsut Temple of Deir el-Bahari,
which
crowned with
room
ET
in:
at the centre leads to the first terrace,
again occupied by two pillared halls. The
a
Bahari,
at the
north-west corner. The frontage of the upper terrace
is
el
rounded
front pillars are, unusually,
has a cave-like sanctuary dedicated to Anubis
there
Deir
48 (1992) 233-254; The Temple of Hatshepsut, pamphlets 1-4 (Warsaw
garden and two T-shaped pools containing papyrus plants. Situated along the front of the lower terrace are
at
result of research in the
MDAIK 40
was occupied by a temple
the spacious forecourt, which
(incorrect reconstruction);
Karkowski, The Arrangement of the Architraves in the Hatshepsut's
Temple
and barque station and
the causeway starts with a pylon
JEA 56 (1970) 101-104
el-Bahari, in:
The upper part of
105
north of the courtyard; some important
Heliopolis
An
important ancient Egyptian town north-east of Cairo
whose
remains are
architectural
still
inadequately
Punt, the
researched despite their unique importance within the
journey of the boats conveying the obelisks from Aswan
development of Egyptian architecture. The double
showing an expedition
relief decoration,
to Thebes,
and the
birth
preserved there
or
to
and coronation of Hatshepsut, are
have been
from
reconstructed
temple of Re-Horakhty and brick enclosure wall
(c.
Atum
is
surrounded by a
900 x 1000 m, 30
m thick). From
fragments. The statues and sphinxes of the queen were
the west gate in the southern half an avenue of sphinxes
destroyed in her damnatio memoriae in the reign of
c.
Thutmosis
thrown
the statue pillars were dismantled
III;
into a nearby stone quarry,
and reconstructed (some Egyptian
A she
Museum
where they were found
temple
itself,
and others
in the
at the
in Cairo
and
identified with Hathor,
main temple.
It
is
temple of Atum.
It
is
known
not
whether the Re-Horakhty temple, which faces
others in the
MMA).
temple or parallel to
situated to the south of the
has a pronaos graced with beautiful
Hathor columns. Reliefs on the walls show
m long (each limestone sphinx 7 m in length) leads
towards the sun, stood back to back with the
separate chapel dedicated to Hatshepsut, in which
is
500
to the west-facing
the cult image
of the Hathor cow, with which Hatshepsut
is
united,
enclosure.
it
in the northern half of the
The plan of the Re-Horakhty temple
Late Period
is
east,
Atum
(?)
wide
of the
preserved on an inventory (in the Museo
and shows
Egizio Turin)
that in the Late Period the
building had three pylons and three courtyards, as well as a temple house, the
benben house, with
its
frontage
standing under a canopy on a barque. The pronaos was
decorated with a pillared hall or four obelisks. This
enlarged with three additional rows of columns.
appears to have been a separate building, where the
later
The temple
is
undergoing a major restoration by the
Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, Warsaw University,
and the Supreme Council
for Antiquities in Egypt.
benben stone cult focus.
known from
Dabrowsli.The main hypostyle
in:
hall of the
Helck,
LA
I
1017-1022;
temple of Hatshepsut
at
L.
Deir
likely to
have stood in an open court as a
inscriptions
and
talatat,
is
not
clear.
We do not know whether the Atum temple stood alone
Bibliography: Edouard Naville, Deir el-Bahari, 6 Vols (London
1895-1908); D. Arnold, Deii el-Bahari,
is
The location of an Aten temple of Akhenaten,
or flat
if
that of
mound,
Re-Horakhty also stood on an
the 'Hoher Sand',
examined
in
artificial
1903-06 by
Heliopolis
106
E. Schiaparelli
and
mound was 600
enclosure wall 65 Petrie,
by Flinders
in 1911/12
sq
m
m
in area
thick,
Petrie.
This
and surrounded by a
which
existed, according to
from the end of the Old Kingdom
until the 20th
erected at the Re-Horakhty temple by Sety
now
small obelisks Villa
now
in the Piazza della
Celimontana in
Rome were
Dynasty. Within the area of the enclosure were found
monuments, by Ramesses
fragments of
now at
a
chapel of Djoser bearing the earliest
depiction of the Divine
Ennead of Heliopolis.
times a centre of the pillar
heyday the temple had
cult, especially
at least
obelisks. In
its
16 obelisks, the earliest
known an obelisk of Teti (6th Dynasty), only 3 m high. On the occasion of his 5ed-festival, Senwosret I erected a new Re-Horakhty temple, also donating a pair of obelisks, 20.41 m high, to the enlarged Atum temple (one of
them remains
upright, the other collapsed in
1161). Before this temple,
obelisks, 21
m
Thutmosis
high (moved in
Caesarium of Alexandria, the in
III
AD
erected two
13-12 BC
Montecitorio also
II.
Rotunda and
to
the
'Cleopatra's Needles'
now
London and New York).
Two limestone pylons with statues and obelisks (known from an ancient architectural model) were
Ramesses
The obelisk of Psamtek
came from
Book
1,
was erected by
27-28; H. Ricke, Eine
im Turiner Museum,
Inventartafel aus Heliopolis
ZAS
in:
ZAS
111-133; H. Ricke, Der Hohe Sand in Heliopolis,
35-45;
II
A temple
Heliopolis.
IV.
Bibliography: Strabo, Geographica XVII,
107-111;
at the
along with other
set up,
inside the northern half of the enclosure
As a place of sun worship, Heliopolis was from ancient
one of them
I;
stands in the Piazza del Popolo in Rome. The two
L.
Habachi, Akhenaten in Heliopolis,
Mohamed
L.
(1935)
in: Festschrift
Ricke
Moursi, Die Hohenpriester des Sonnengottes von
I.
der Friihzeit Agyptens bis
(Munich 1972);
71 (1935) 71
zum Ende
des
Neuen
Reiches,
in:
Helck,
LA
Kakosy, Heliopolis,
II
MAS
26,
1111-1113;
Abdel-Aziz Saleh, Excavations at Heliopolis, 2 Vols (Cairo 1981, 1983); A. Roccati, in: Dal
Museo
al
Torino (Turin 1989) 167; d'Heliopolis, in:
Hekekyan
Museo, Passato efuturo del Mmeo Egizio di S.
Bickel
and
P.
Tallet,
La necropole
BIFAO 97 (1997) 67-86 (with map);
at Heliopolis, in:
on Ancient Egypt
in
Anthony Leahy and John
saite
D. Jeffreys, Joseph Tait,
Eds, Studies
Honour of H.S. Smith (London 1999) 157-168.
700
500
west gate
100-
Plan of the temple precinct at Heliopolis
-
Hermopolis
Helwan A site between
107
El-Ma' adi and Helwan with more than
10,000 tombs, comprising the largest Egyptian cemetery
mastabas
built
plain, others niched); they
have
of the Early Dynastic Period. There are
some
of brick,
them
of
entrance stairs and a portcullis; some have model
magazines and boat
There are some monumental
pits.
stepped tombs (probably of the 2nd to 3rd Dynasties) with limestone orthostats and paved burial chambers.
The
interior of stone
m
mastaba 287 H.6 (27 x 56
area) contains a stone-lined shaft
and
a burial
in
chamber
with stone-lined walls and rounded beams carved
in the
stone ceiling. Bibliography: Zaki
Y.
Saad, Royal
Y.
Excavations at Helwan (1945-47) (Cairo 1951) 1-84; Zaki
The Excavations Helck,
LA
II
at
Helwan (Oklahoma 1969);
P.
Y.
Saad,
Kaplony, Heluan,
Wood, The archaic stone tombs
1115; W.
and
Saad, Royal Excavations at Saqqara
Helwan (1941-45) (Cairo 1947) 161-252; Zaki
at
Helwan,
in: in:
JEA 73 (1987) 59-77.
Hemispeos A rock temple whose Examples
Wadi Miya, Wadi
front portion
is
free-standing.
Derr, Gerf Hussein, Gebel Barkal,
exist at
el-Sebu'a.
Hemiunu, tomb of Hemiunu, the son of Nefermaat, was the head of construction (architect) builder of stone at
the pyramid of
at
mastaba G 4000
Khufu and m)
(area 26.77 x 53.20
The two
heraldic pillars of Thutmosis
III at
Karnak
Giza. This was originally a smaller structure with two
false
doors (and possibly
brick chapel) on the east-
a
facing side. Following enlargement, at the front, the earlier cult
it
had two
cult niches
niches being converted into
serdabs (where the famous statue of Hemiunu
Museum, Hildesheim, was found) and
Pelizaeus
brick-built
mortuary offering chapel was erected
in the
a
new
in front
Junker,
the important city of Hermopolis near
Ashmunein, with
a
m
temple precinct (637 sq
enclosed by walls 15
m deep
Giza
I
132-162; A.O. Bolshakov,
observations on the early chronology of Meidum,
in:
Some
GM
123
the eastern part are sanctuaries of the principal gods,
Amun
and Thoth. The area enclosed
processional
way leading
front of the pylon statues, stelae
(1991)11-20.
is
entered via a gate
is
to the temple.
A
Two
pillar,
see also column,
granite pillars, 6.77
m high, of Thutmosis III in front
of the barque sanctuary of the precinct of
Karnak
about
pillar
Amun
at
are decorated in painted three-quarter relief
showing the heraldic plants of Lower Egypt, the papyrus,
and of Upper Egypt, the 'lily'.
Wappenpflanze(n),
in:
Lubicz and G. and
V.
Plates 131-137.
Helck,
LA VI 1146-1152;
P.
Kaplony,
R.A. Schwaller de
de Mir, Les temples de Karnak (Paris 1982),
on the
furnished with obelisks, royal
and sphinxes of Nectanebo
I.
Further to is
known
which was possibly occupied by
front part,
a
pylon and forecourt. The central area contains a later
temple of Thoth (55 x its
front
is
a
1
10
m)
of Nectanebo
I.
Standing
pronaos of Philip Arrhidaeus, 57.75
at
m wide,
consisting of two rows of six limestone columns, which is
Bibliography: Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire, Plate 14;
its
II
structure in
the north lies the precinct of Thoth. Nothing
Heraldic
in area)
(30th Dynasty). Situated in
from the south, followed by a pylon of Ramesses
of the southern niche. Bibliography:
Hermopolis (Hermopolis Magna) The ruins of
of great importance for the history of construction.
This building, preserved expedition with
demolished
its
in 1826.
at
the time of the French
glorious coloured decoration,
was
Four colossal statues of baboons
were erected by Amenhotep
III.
Hesyre
108
Reconstruction of the pronaos of the Thoth temple of Philip Arrhidaeus
Lying
angles to the temple of Thoth are the
at right
remains of the east-facing Amun sanctuary of Ramesses
II,
protected after the manner of a 'house of millions of years' by
a turreted fortress wall, the south-east facing
corner of the latter possibly occupied by a cult palace. To
Amun
the south of the
temple stands a monumental
temple gateway of Amenemhat
II,
Hermopolis
narrow openings faced with wooden panels decorated with delicate carvings. The body of the mastaba was enlarged several times. The history of
construction
its
remains uncertain. Bibliographv:
A
J.E.
Quibell,
The Tomb ofHesy (Cairo 1913); W. Wood,
reconstruction of the reliefs of Hesv-re,
in:
JARCE
15
(
1978) 9-24.
probably the entrance
temple dedicated to Thoth and the
to the original
at
Hetep, see Ihy and Hetep
primeval gods, perhaps situated on the primeval
mound
attested to in texts as belonging to
Hermopolis
Magna, but of which no trace has been found temple dedicated
to
Ptah
(?)
of Ramesses
II is
to date.
situated in
More than one thousand decorated blocks (talatat) that had been removed from Amarna
from Aten temples
especially in
1929/30 in the temple precinct,
in
the pylons of Ramesses
Amun
II,
along the pro-
On
the edge of the
cessional
way and
desert
the important necropoleis of Tuna el-Gebel.
lie
site also
at the
Bezirk
und
IV, Plates
...
The
in the so-called
in:
ZAS 67
(
1931 ) 82-88;
Agora of Hermopolis,
in:
46 (1947) 289-295; G. Roeder, Zwei hieroglyphische Inschriften
aus Hermopolis,
magna,
in:
in:
Helck,
ASAE
LA
II
1
52 (1952) 315-442;
137-1 147;
A.J.
Spencer
Et-Ashmmein, 4 Vols (London 1983-91); des Thot-Heiligtums, in:
ZAS
D. KeGler,
E.
et al.,
Hermopolis
Excavations at
Hornung, Die 'Kammern
100 (1974) 33-35. D. Arnold, Zur Rekon-
struktion des Pronaos von Hermopolis,
in:
MDAIK 50 (1994)
North Saqqara (22 x 44 the eastern side
Upper Egypt and
13-22.
seat of the
Horus falcon (nekhen), closely linked with royalty. The site,
rich in remains of particular archaeological signifi-
cance,
fell
victim in 1897-99 to untrained excavation work.
The primeval sanctuary of the Horus sandy
mound encased in
sandstone.
precinct, divine fortress)
is
Its
90 x 145
falcon stood
on a
enclosure (temple
m
in area
and may
Two blocks (now
in the
Egyptian Museum, Cairo) from a granite gateway of the sanctuary bear the earliest Egyptian temple
from the 28
m
rule of
relief,
dating
King Khasekhemwy. Remains of a 16 x
brick temple have been excavated, consisting of a
broad room with
five statue shrines
arranged in a row. The
temple may date from the Old Kingdom and stood on a sacred
mound
of sand, a 'High Sand' ('Hoher Sand').
niching or divine
fortress of the 1st Dynasty, has
been
exploratory digging. Outside the enclosure
stood the 'fortress' of King Khasekhemwy, a 65 x 75 of the late 3rd Dynasty at
m in area). A cult corridor along
was decorated with unique paintings
as
well as furnished with 11 elaborate cult niches, their
A
gateway inside the enclosure, part of a palace with
damaged by
Hesyre An important brick mastaba
(Kom el-Ahmar)
pre-historic capital of
date from the early Old Kingdom.
Roman city.
50-52; Gunther Roeder, Der Urzeit-
die Urgottheiten von Hermopolis,
M. Kamal, Excavations
ASAE
temple.
includes important remains of the
Bibliography: Description
Hierakonpolis The
the southern part of Ashmunein.
were discovered
Hibis temple, see El-Kharga
A
m
niched brick enclosure, of the kind which represents the
funerary enclosure of the king found necropolis
is
the earliest
with painted decoration
at
Abydos. In the
tomb (Hierakonpolis No.
known
in Egypt.
100)
High Gate
^£-
•vs.
.
Casing blocks of the 'High Sand'
The
K. Weeks,
Hierakonpolis (after
M. Flinders
Bibliography: William 1898); F.W. Green
at
and
J.E.
early dynastic palace,
in:
JARCE
B.J.
Kemp, photographs of
the decorated
at
tomb
II
I
(London
(London 1899);
9 (1971-72) 29-33;
Hierakonpolis,
II
I,
Adams, Hierakonpolis,
Excavations of the Temple Area on the
NY
in:
ZAS 94
(1967) 71-78; Aharon
Kempinski and Ronny Reich, Eds, The Architecture of Ancient
Israel
(New York 1992) 135-136.
in:
1182-1186; Walter A. Fairservis, The Hierakonpolis Project
B.
Hohen Tor von Medinet Habu,
Hierakonpolis, and at
LA
JEA 59 (1973) 31-43;
Zj^~-
Clarke)
Petrie, Hierakonpolis
Quibell, Hierakonpolis
Crowfoot Payne, The decorated tomb
J.
S.
109
in:
Kom el Gemuwia
Helck,
(Poughkeepsie,
1983).
High Gate This description applies to two
monumental
structures in the enclosure wall around
temple is
at
gate
Ramesses
Ill's
Mediriet Habu. They have a brick core which
encased in sandstone, with two upper floors for
habitation (battlements - Fig.).
The
walls are richly-
decorated with the so-called 'harim scenes'; their total height
is
m. Whether these gate structures served any
19
military purpose
copy of the
is
real
doubtful; instead they appear to be a
accommodation towers
residences adapted for use in the this
afterlife.
at the
Delta
Forerunners of
type of gate structure are to be found in the 12th
Dynasty Nubian fortresses (Buhen). Comparable examples exist in the
North
(Tell
el-Retaba) and in some fortress
structures in Syro-Palestinian territories. Bibliography:
Uvo Holscher, Das Hohe
1910); Holscher, Medinet
Habu
II,
Tor von Medinet
Habu
(Leipzig
4-10, Plates 6-26; G.Haeny,
Zum
Reconstruction of the High Gate of Ramesses (after U. Holscher)
III at
Medinet Habu
'Hoher Sand', 'High Sand'
110
'Hoher Sand', 'High Sand'
this
The German name given by Ricke
to cult structures con-
an area of sand heaped up
sisting of
in a rectangle or oval
and enclosed by a stone or brick wall
dam
like a
with
rounded corners, on which the actual sanctuary stood.
was meant
to represent
an island emerging from the
meval ocean (symbolism). Examples so
It
pri-
far excavated are:
kind would
more than 100
last
under
years, or
less
advantageous conditions only 30-60 years. The walls of Egyptian houses were usually plastered and often painted white or yellow on the outside, having yellow interior walls,
and
dado area
a black
at the base,
with a brightly
coloured stripe dividing the one from the other and
surrounding doors and windows. Ceilings were white;
in
palaces they were decorated. Wall paintings were rare in
Diameter 46 x 46
Heliopolis (earlier than Djoser)
600 x 600 450 x 470
el-Yahudiya (date?)
Tell
houses.
private
m
Hierakonpolis (early Old Kingdom?)
m m
been
a sacred
hill
Hohe Sand von
has not yet
ZAS
71
had
A temple tomb
Saqqara of General (and
at
later
Horemheb. The superstructure was completed
King)
two
after
enlargements (possibly in imitation of pyramid temples). Divided in two,
minor and
(multiple shrine,
Fig., E).
in five storeys
is
The
intricate
system of burial
based on the plan of Theban
kings' tombs; another element
a hall of four pillars with
is
Bibliography: Geoffrey Martin, The
Egyptian civilisation was based on
scale.
agriculture
and the supply of natural products, so
Egyptian houses always had some element of the
farmhouse about them; even the
Kingdom remains
Old
sq
m in the priestly settlement of Queen Khentkawes A m with a garden and pond I.
mentioned
is
biography
the
in
el-Dab'a,
Kahun,
Vol.
1
all
times was usually a single-
at
Merimde, round
at
Merimde, Omari and
El-
at
Ma'adi, and in some cases half sunk into the ground, with
grain stores and hearths. Construction
timber/mats and multiple-room
in the
Near
As
is
East,
Nile
mud. From
courtyard
this
house
of
usual around the Mediterranean
and because of climatic conditions,
houses of this type had an outwardly defensive fortresslike
appearance and were orientated towards the inside,
being erected around a courtyard or out of
mud
climatically
El-Lisht,
soldiers, are quite
Qasr el-Sagha, Nubian
hall.
They were
built
is
its
common
fortresses). Their
(for
example
rooms
are long
a vaulted ceiling.
The
central
an inner courtyard with the other buildings
arranged around while
Dahshur, Elephantine, Deir
Terraced houses, built by the state for
it.
The court contained a pool of
water,
southern side often had a columned portico to
keep out the sun. The court was approached from an entrance
room with a small chamber on one side, possibly
containing a hearth. Leaving the court, one entered the living
room of the house, which was
that the ceiling this
room
had
to
in
some cases so large
be supported on columns. Beyond
lay the private part of the house.
The houses of
the upper middle class usually contained a bedroom with a
bed
alcove, a
bathroom and attached storage rooms.
Larger houses possessed additional suites of rooms for other branches of the family or domestic
staff;
they also
Kahun, with more
bricks and timber, materials that were
had grain
advantageous; stone was used only in
than 70 rooms, had groups of eight or nine huge grain
and the
like.
With
careful
stores.
The
largest
houses
at
columns, window
stores.
Many houses have stairs leading to an roof or to an
maintenance a house of
upper
storey.
thresholds, door frames, the bases of grilles
(3rd-4th
(London 1989).
structure, rectangular
historical times.
Metjen
better-preserved remains of the Middle
feature
the
of
Some
in recent years.
materials were
Buto,
Balat,
at
residence of 105 sq
and narrow, often having
Omari, oval
survive
Hierakonpolis and 10 complete houses with a area of 150
workmen and
Hammamiya and
country estates.
display recognisable local characteristics (Tell
extraordinarily rich in domestic buildings of
in pre-historic
Kahun and
villas at
Amarna resembled the dwellings on
periods and their study has produced important results
and
had
Kingdom
House
developed
elite
on a larger
el-Ballas).
a courtyard,
etc,
for the householder,
Dynasty).
Commander-in-Chief of Tut'ankhamun,
The house
room
Memphite Tomb of Horemheb,
painted decoration.
room
craftsmen
officials, priests,
living
several halls apparently serving as official or reception
consists of a statue temple followed at the
it
back by a mortuary offering temple with a pyramid
is
for
a central hall
rooms. Royal palaces were laid out on the same basis, but
Horemheb, tomb of
Egypt
a courtyard as a working area
which were status symbols. The houses of the Heliopolis, in:
(1935) 107-111.
chambers
m) had
and a few multi-purpose rooms. Medium-size houses
sufficiently researched for Egypt.
Bibliography: H. Ricke, Der
social status of the householder. Small
houses (30-70 sq
(70-150 sq m),
The phenomenon of temples on
and expense of construction
Size
depended on the
House
111
bathroom
stairs
to roof r
I
adjacent house
A:
House of
the
commander
of the Middle
Kingdom
plan and section of house C50/C51 at Karanis
fort at
Buhen;
B:
House Q46/1
at
Amarna;
C: estate of Ineni,
scene from his tomb
TT
81; D/E:
'House of millions of years'
112
During the house,
New Kingdom
found
first
a single type of dwelling
Upper Egypt (Deir el-Ballas,
in
Elephantine), became widespread throughout the country The central element
is
a roofed central
room
Museum
Studies
(1929) 233-255;
1
L.
Borchardt, Die Entstehung der
Teppichbemalung an altagyptischen Decken und Gewolben,
Grundrifi des
Amarna-Wohnhauses (Leipzig
1932); Arthur E.R. Boak,
or pillared hall protruding above the roofs of the
Soknopaiou Nesos (Ann Arbor 1935); H. Larsen, Vorbericht
surrounding rooms, with a skylight providing
schwedischen Grabungen
the pillared hall. This part
light in
surrounded by private
is
rooms, including a bedroom with a bed alcove, a bath
surrounded by stone lavatory, in
and
a
some
second
tiles, a
washbasin and the base of a
cases a drain leading out to the street,
hall.
Houses of the upper classes
at
Amarna
by extensive complexes of courtyards
are surrounded
and gardens. Like Minoan
villas
(at
Vathypetron,
10
Abu
MDAIK6
Ghalib, in:
Habu
Holscher, Medinet
1-59;
(1941)
in
in:
69-88;
le
Karnak, in:
LA
Anus, Habitations de pretres dans
Karnak IV (= Kemi
in:
1055-1061;
11
217-238;
21, 1971)
Hausbau,
D. Arnold,
BIFAO 69 (1971) temple d'Amon a
with store houses and animal sheds, and
facilities for
domestique a l'epoque meroitique,
in: Festschrift
servants and craftsmen. At the craftsmen's village of Deir
Mieczyslaw Rodziewicz, Alexandria
III.
el-Medina a small stairway led from the
tardives d'Alexandria
into the entrance
central road
room, which contained
a bed-like
decorated with religious motifs. Beyond this lay
cult area
the central room, central column.
whose raised roof was supported on
The
seat for the
a
house-owner would have
Amarna,
120-136;
was also a storage the
to acquire extra storeys, possibly
From and
illustrations in
clay
due
to lack of space.
Theban tombs of the New Kingdom
models of the Middle Kingdom
at
B.J.
B.J.
Rifeh (/co-
1062-
Ricke 121-131;
Amarna — II, in: ZAS I
Crocker, Status symbols in
JEA 71 (1985) 52-65;
112 (1985) 48-85; 113 (1986) 55-78;
Kemp, The Amarna workmen's
in:
ZAS
village, in:
C. Tietze,
B.J.
Kemp,
113 (1986)
JEA 73 ( 1987)
Kemp, Amarna Reports I-IV (London 1984-87); maisons du domaine d'Aton
C. Traunecker, Les
cellar cut into the rock.
New Kingdom onwards, town houses tended
C. Tietze, P.T.
II
l'architecture
Les habitations romaines
Large Middle Kingdom granary buildings,
21-50;
From
ZAS
in:
room and there
(Warsaw 1984);
112 (1985) 48-84; 113 (1986) 55-78;
stood on a small platform. Beyond this part lay a private the kitchen yard with stairs leading to the roof;
Jacquet,
the architecture of El-'Amarna, in:
LA
Remarques sur
Tylissos) these houses have administrative quarters,
J.
Brinks, Haus,
J.
Helck,
in:
1064; RickcWohnhauser,
down
Badawy,
A.
JNES 17(1 958)
Anus, Un domain thebain d'epoque amarnienne' sur
P.
quelques blocs de remploi trouves a Karnak, P.
in:
iiber die
(1936) 41-87;
V;
IV,
Architectural provisions against heat in the Orient,
122-128;
in:
fur Bauwesen 79 (1929) 111-115; Herbert Ricke, Der
Zeitschrift
a
Karnak,
in: Societe's
urbaines en Egypte et au Soudan (Lille 1988) 73-93; Elke Roik,
Das altdgyptische Wohnhaus und (Frankfurt 1988); in:
F.
Arnold,
A
seine Darstellung
im Flachbild
study of Egyptian domestic building,
M.
Varia Aegyptiaca 5 (1989) 75-93;
Bietak, 'Gotterwohnung
und
house) we can posit the existence of three- or four-storey
Menschenwohnung'. Die Entstehung eines Tempeltyps des Mittleren
town houses. The low ground
Reiches aus der zeitgenossischen Wohnarchitektur,
and
agricultural
floor contained craftsmen's
accommodation, while the main part of
the house in the upper storeys belonged to the
owner of
was taken up by
servants'
the house.
The
front part
accommodation and
stairs; at the rear
were bedrooms
and, on the roof, a shady arbour, storage rooms and the
Remains of
kitchen.
Kingdom stone
a two-storey
models
and
Ptolemaic period
preserved
Karanis,
at
show the existence of
New
from
buildings
Dima and Alexandria
human
Ramesside Egypt, Stadtischer
Amarna
in:
Wohnbau
(Berlin
was
dwellings. There are other examples
of influence in both directions, such as the development of
Paulette
Haus und
M.M. Daviau, Houses and
Palestine (Sheffield
1993);
Kjell
W.M.
Gurob
(London
1891);
Flinders Petrie, Kahun, Gurob Flinders Petrie, Illahun,
Fritz
MDAIK
Arnold, Die
F.
54 (1998) 1-18;
in einer
agyptischen
their Furnishings in
Bronze Age
Werner, The Megaron during the
'House of millions of years' The New Kingdom palaces of millions of
Luckhard,
and
Kahun and
Das Privathaus
im
years' are
widely distributed cult buildings of kings. They took over in part the function of the
W.M.
in:
Aegean and Anatolian Bronze Age ( Jonsered 1993).
and Middle Kingdoms,
1890);
in
Palast 231-237. Neighbouring countries:
the type of temple with small double cult-image chambers
Bibliography (selection):
House and Palace;
Amarna. Wohn- und Lebensverhaltnisse
Stadt, in: Bietak,
Kurth,
Klimagerechte Lehmarchitektur in
in Ag)'pten:
1994); Bietak,
Priesterhauser der Chentkaues in Giza, C. Tietze,
in:
Age four-room house
Eretz-Israel 23 (1992) 9-12; A. Endruwiet,
based on house construction of the 12th Dynasty.
Hawara (London
Iron
cellar.
layout of the houses of the gods, the temples,
modelled on
the
three-storey castle-like houses
which had an additional vaulted
The
house of the
are preserved at north El-Lisht. Depictions,
An
Tempeltagung 13-22; M. Bietak,
of the king cult of a
is
in
pyramid temples
of the Old
which the continued existence
ensured through his assimilation with the
powerful god, such as
mystic union between the two
Amun, is
Osiris or Ptah; the
shown
in the cult
image
barque
ptolemaischen und romischen Agypten, Dissertation (Giessen 1914);
and wall
N. de Garis Davies, The town house in Ancient Egypt,
processions took place in which the cult image of the god
in:
Metropolitan
reliefs.
For this
reason,
regular
Hypostyle hall concerned was conveyed
which the
years',
king's
to the 'house of millions of
ba could enter via a false door
in
Hypostyle hall The term 'hypostyle' is generally applied
to hall buildings,
the rear wall of the sanctuary. Thus, the cult of a god,
but in Egypt
known from
pillared halls with a raised central nave,
experience to have been maintained for a
some measure
longer period, provided
of guarantee for
the continuance of the cult of the king associated with
The two
union required above
sides of this cultic
barque chamber for the god and an attached
a
palace
Other associated elements were mortuary
for the king.
cult
cult
it.
all
rooms of the
and Hathor
king, as well as sun
sanctuaries and cult rooms for several other gods.
The
architecture
supported by 122 smooth-sided papyrus columns.
is
hall receives light
height of 5
m
from windows
Lower Egypt. The 'houses of millions of
Construction
tombs. Their
forerunner was the
earliest
temple of Mentuhotep; other early forms occurred in the 1
2th and
1
3th Dynasties.
preserved or attestable
New Kingdom
of the
Memphis,
for
A 'house
of millions of years'
Thebes
at
almost every king
for
and, outside Thebes,
Amenhotep
is
at
Memphis and for Ramesses Memphis. The latest examples are (at Memphis) and Osorkon II (at at
II
at
I
Abydos and
those of Osorkon
I
Leontopolis - Tell
el-Moqdam). Bibliography:
(London
W.M. Flinders
1897);
Holscher,
zum
Petrie, Six
in:
MDAIK
Helck,
Temples at Thebes 1896
Medinet Habu
'Haus fur Millionen
(1978) 1-8; R. Stadelmann, Totentempel
III, in:
I;
D.
Arnold,
Jahre', in:
Vom
MDAIK
Archeologie
und Millionenjahrhaus
in:
L'Egyptologie en 1979
I
(
II et
(1989);
L.Gabold,
Les
temples
Toutankhamon, in: B1FAO 89 (1989)
127-178; G. Haeny, Zur Funktion der'Hauser Kurth, Tempeltagung 101-106; G. Haeny,
fiir
Millionen jahre',
in:
New Kingdom mortuary
temples and 'mansions of millions of years',
in:
Byron Shafer, Ed.,
Temples of Ancient Egypt (Cornell 1997) 86-126; Christian L.eblanc,
Quelques reflexions sur
le
programme iconographique
des temples de 'Millions d'annees',
(1
I,
The hypostyle
in:
et la
fonction
Quirke, Temple, 49-56.
On
see Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt
100-650 BC) (Warminster 1986)
the structure
was probably
form found
in
temple sanctuaries without
Egypt
in
Aten temples, sun
temples and possibly Late Period temples
and Bubastis.
at
Mendes
III
is
the
8 x 10 octagonal pillars, 3
The
kiosk
a
m
original concept of set inside a festival
why
is
and the lower
raised central hall
example
earliest
high, but without a central nave.
the elements of a
pillared courts are
always kept separate. Comparable examples are the Hall
corridor,
Akhmenu
II
in
with two
(Medinet Habu). In the reign of the
III
master builder Amenhotep
Theban
halls.
III
surrounding pillared
(Ramesseum, Temple of Ptah at Memphis)
and Ramesses lavish
of Thutmosis
set inside a
and there are some monumental structures of
Ramesses
private
III,
the transverse hall
tombs developed
into vast pillared
Late successors of hypostyle halls are pronaoi.
Bibliography: H. Schafer, Die angebliche Basiliken-Halle des Tempels
von Luksor,
in:
IAS
constructions de
61 (1924) 52-57; H. Chevrier, Chronologie des
la salle
Basilikale Anlagen;
hypostyle,
drammatique de
BdE 32
(Cairo
de
V.
la salle
Of historic
ASAE 54
in:
(
1956) 35-38; Haeny,
Gerhard Haeny, Hypostyl,
111-112. For decorative scheme
l'entree
to the sky'; describes
with com-
antecedents in houses
its
its
la salle
see:
P.
71-79;
Rondot and
W.Helck,
in:
Helck,
J.C.
LA
III
La conception
Melanges Mariette,
Die
Systematik
Halle van Karnak, in:
MDAIK
der 32
Colvin, Restaurations antiques a
hypostyle de Karnak,
interest: Gabriel
in:
Gilbert,
hypostyle de Karnak,
1961)
Ausschmuckung der hypostylen
302ff.
Hypaetral a roof, a
had
Mentuhotep temple with
(1976) 57-65;
'Open
hall
and palace buildings. The
rows of ten columns
Paris
I,
theory suggesting that the
restoration several times in the Pharaonic age.
in
G. Haeny, La fonction religieuse des
136
'memoriaux' de Thoutmosis
Osorkon
in that of Sety
A
origins in the reign of Amenhotep
its
of Annals and the
1982) 111-116; Thebes. Les temples de millions d'annees, Dossiers et
II.
has been proved to be incorrect. The structure underwent
34
35 (1979) 303-321; R. Stadelmann, Totentempel
LA VI 706-711;
'Chateaux de Millions d'annees',
Histoire
under Ramesses
court with pillared halls, which
Pyramidenbezirk
Theben,
unlikely to have started in the reign of
is
central nave has
Soleb and
others are those for Sety
III;
The
m long, weigh up to 70 tonnes.
Horemheb, beginning instead pletion
in the raised walls
(ceiling construction, Fig.).
architraves, the longest 7
relevant kings'
whose ceiling is columns with open-
six
m high. The roof of the 14 side-aisles
papyrus capitals, 21
of years) by representatives of the gods of Upper and
on the
in
naves
central
supported on two rows of
at a
years'
all to
and one of the most extensive pillared halls
wide, raised
three
The
Theban West Bank represent the mortuary temples of the
and above
the world, covering 5500 sq m. This structure consists of
palm frond (representing millions
the presentation of a
New Kingdom
applied particularly to
is
it
the hypostyle hall of Karnak, the largest in Egyptian
leitmotif in the decoration of 'houses of millions of years' is
113
in:
MDAIK 45 (1989) 249-259.
Leroux, Les origines de Tedifice hypostyle en
Grece, en Orient et chez les Romains, Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises
d'Athene
et
halls of the
de Rome, Fasc. 108 (Paris 1913); Dieter Arnold, Hypostyle Old and Middle Kingdom,
in:
Studies Simpson
1,
39-54.
114
Hypostyle hall
X L
£~ L-i
o
O^ o
Sections and plan of the hypostyle hall pylon; C: plan; D: ceiling plan of the
at
same
Karnak
(after G. Haeny). A: cross-section; B: longitudinal section of the structure in front of the third
structure
Ibi,
An
tomb
of
Assasif
(TT
and a small mortuary
statues preserved in situ,
important Late Period Theban tomb 36), the superstructure of
(c.
630 BC)
in the
which follows
a
room. The structures
mastaba
to a
illustrate the
temple tomb.
very irregular plan due to lack of space. The subterranean
Bibliography: Cecil
complex - sun court, pillared hall and an intricate complex of burial apartments - is likewise cramped. The
Cemeteries
and decoration of the tombs of Ihy and Hetep
tomb has been
Abusir 2000 207-214.
well
examined
and contains important wall
in archaeological terms,
reliefs
and
Graefe,
Das Grab des
Ibi,
P.
Kuhlmann and
2 Vols (Mainz 1983); Erhard
Two
similar stone-built
tombs of the 12th Dynasty
in
close proximity to each other at
Saqqara, between of a small forecourt
3x3
pillars,
at
Teti
Saqqara,
km
Pyramid
in:
Barta,
the Nile opposite
south of Aswan, covering in the Old
m, and provided
a rectangular area of 50 x 95
with a moat and semi-circular turrets. Above
Mereruka and Kagemni, consisting with
Bank of
fortress on the West
Kingdom
and Hetep, tombs of
and Battiscombe Gunn,
Firth
(Koshtemma)
Ikkur
A
Kubban, 100
Ibi (Brussels 1990).
Ihy
M.
(Cairo 1926) 61-65; R. Freed,Observations on the dating
inscriptions.
Bibliography: Eigner, Grabbauteti 51-52; Klaus
Wolfgang Schenkel, Das Grab des
I
offering
transformation of a
structure, 82 x
1
10
it is
a
newer
m, of the Middle and New Kingdoms
with parts of a temple. Bibliography: G.A. Reisner, The Archeological Survey of Nubia: Report
two raised statue chapels, with block
for 1908-1909, Vol.
1,
22-25; Vol.
Egyptian Frontier Fortresses,
Illahun,
see El-Lahun
Senwosret
2, Plates
JEA
tomb
Amenhotep
three rock-cut statues. 1th
Clark, Ancient
of
I
to
a pillared front, a passage
1
S.
621, Kahun,
The Theban rock tomb (TT 81 ) of a of the period
33-36;
3 (1916) 160-161.
II
tomb
Ineni,
in:
royal master builder,
Thutmosis
and
The tomb
III,
consisting of
a shrine provided with is
adapted from an early
Dynasty structure.
Bibliography: Eberhard Dziobek, Das Grab des Ineni,
Theben
Nr. 81
(Mainz 1992).
Inpy,
The
tomb
of
idiosyncratic, architecturally interesting tomb, at
Illahun, of the architect of Senwosret
mastaba top combined with
II. It
consists of a
a rock-cut chapel of
Upper
Egyptian type with a four-pillar facade, behind which
lies
a cult chapel with three statue shrines. Equally unusual
the burial complex consisting of three in the forecourt, a shaft, 3 x 8
which
is
at
Saqqara
26-28.
is
as well as,
wide, the purpose of
unknown.
Bibliography:
Tombs of Ihy and Hetep
m
rooms
W.M.
Flinders Petrie et al,
Lahun
II
(London 1923)
116
Intercolumnium
on the ground suggests that the building was similar
form
to the
in
temple of Dendera. The west-orientated
front of the temple
was probably a
pillared court with a
pronaos beyond, followed by one or more pillared halls with Reconstruction of the combined mastaba and rock tomb of Inpy
Lahun (tomb chambers
at El-
simplified)
II.
m
Hathor columns, 10.15
high, of Ptolemy
was an ascent
Situated alongside to the south
to the
roof and, further to the east, the holy-of-holies of
Nectanebo
II,
The remaining parts were
built of granite.
Intercolumnium, see screen wall
constructed of rose granite, quartzite and basalt,
Iseum (Behbeit el-Hagar)
earliest cartouches visible are those of
Situated west of Mansura in a brick enclosure (area 210 x
and Nectanebo
typical of temples of the
362 m, walls 18-20
m thick)
is
the spectacular
mound
of blocks from the collapsed Isis temple of Hebet (area
55-80 m). The position of the
richly decorated blocks
26-30th Dynasties. The Nectanebo
Further to the west are the cartouches of Ptolemies
and
III.
I
in the eastern part of the temple.
II
The Ptolemaic kings probably found II,
whose decoration had
final
Persian invasion of
half-completed by Nectanebo
been interrupted by the
II
a structure
343 BC. Partial reconstruction of the building appears possible. Bibliography: G. Roeder, Der Isistempel von Behbet,
in:
ZAS 46 (1909)
62-73; C.C. Edgar and G. Roeder, Der Isistempel von Behbet,
in:
(1913) 89-1 16; A. Lezine, Etat present du Temple de Bahbeit
el
in:
Kind
10
1949) 49-57; B.V. Bothmer, Ptolemaic
(
of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 51 el-Hagar,
in:
Helck.IA
dTsis a reconstruire,
1
(
1953) 1-7;
RT 35
Hagar,
reliefs, in: Bulletin
L.
Habachi, Behbeit
682-683; Christine Favard-Meeks, Un temple
in:
Archeologia 263 (1990) 28-33; Christine
Favard-Meeks, Le temple de Behbeit el-Hagara (Hamburg 1991).
Ismant el-Kharab (Smint el-Kharb) An area of ruins (250 x 350 m) in the chief settlement of the
Dakhla Oasis with
Tutu and Shait. this
Its
the remains of the temple of
outer walls decorated with pilasters,
consists of three rooms.
sanctuaries, the side ones in front with
vaulted
ceilings.
cased in stone. Beyond
lies
has three parallel
It
and the The
offering table hall
central sanctuary
is
a small chapel, also dedi-
cated to Tutu. Hathor column, cavetto cornice and water spout of the Iseum el-Hagar (after A. Lezine)
at
Behbeit
Bibliography: Herbert W. Winlock, Ed., Dakhleh Oasis
1936) 20-2 1 Plates 11,13. ,
(New York
J
Joint
cut into the upper edge of a block directly below,
Economy in the use of material is often the reason why masonry joints lie oblique to verticals or to the course of walls. (This applies mainly in the Old Kingdom and is less frequent in the Middle and New Kingdoms.) However, this was not true polygonal masonry. The use of regular ashlar masonry was rare (Chapelle Rouge, talatat), becoming commonplace in Graeco-Roman buildings.
Bedding
joints
were usually horizontal,
exceptions being those in the inward-sloping casing of
pyramids of the 3rd Dynasty or corridors,
where
in
downward-sloping
joints are correspondingly sloped too.
Roofing slabs in sloping corridors occasionally have vertical joints in order to reduce slippage.
feature in Egyptian stone buildings of the Old
Kingdoms, but also of
later periods, are
A
striking
and Middle
oblique joints.
Often, in the case of larger blocks the joint
may be
at
an
angle to the horizontal as well as to the direction of the wall.
Such 'trapezoidal' masonry, which must have
entailed considerable
explained by
The
economy
joints achieved
work
for the
masons, can only be
is
often so
tight that the course of the joints is not discernible.
was achieved by sawing the facing
This
sides of blocks until
they matched exactly. In the process the
case of close joints, only a contact
band
saw sometimes
in the
at the front
edge
of the blocks was smoothed (a form of anathyrosis).
Where
the
masonry
cores of pyramids, liberally to
compensate
Lack of time the
irregular, as for
is
New Kingdom
in the
for the irregularity of gaps.
some
in
example
mortar and small stones were used of the large building projects of
led to sacrificing the accuracy of joints
and the
resulting irregularities were disguised with
gypsum.
Close joints were often coated with a lubricant
(mortar); in Graeco-Roman buildings this was applied to a horizontal contact
Close joints were
filled
band
that
had been roughened.
with mortar which was poured
from above using grooves precise layout of joints
in the blocks. In
is
likely to
some cases
in
the
have been planned
thoroughly in advance. In most cases, joints respected the
importance of certain structural elements,
for
example
torus mouldings (cavetto cornice), even giving
decoration, such as the heads of gods
in the use of material.
between casing blocks
unintentionally causing the position of the upper block to
be 'marked'. From as early as the Old Kingdom,
and
building elements are kept separate by
way
to
kings. Certain
means of vertical
joints as a precaution against irregular slippage. Bibliography: Clark, 36; Golvin,
AEM 96-1 16;
Karnak 108-1
16;
Jaritz,
Terrassen 33-36, Plates 10,
Arnold, Building 120-124.
K Ka-house (hut-ka) A general term for dwellings tombs and
symbolic 'Stairs for the ka, for
especially chapels for £a-statues.
example
Many
ka-
rated burial
to
Heaven. The western niche of the deco-
chamber
occupied by a vast sarcophagus.
is
Bibliography: Friedrich W. von Bissing, Die Mastaba des Gem-ni-kai
houses of kings and private persons of the Old and
(Berlin
Middle Kingdoms are preserved,
Pyramid Cemeteries (Cairo 1926),
to the
in
most cases attached
Teti
at
Bubastis, Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
Dendera, Heqaib
at
1-32;
Teti
Plate 51.
Kaplony, Ka-Haus,
in:
Helck.IA
Kahun Egyptological
and
17 (1917) 226-236; Labib Habachi, P.
I
at
Elephantine).
Bibliography: G. Daressy, Chapelle de Mentouhotep
ASAE 1
and Battiscombe Gunn,
Firth
temple of a god. Their appearance usually takes the
shape of a simple shrine, built of stone or brick (Pepy
and
M.
1905); Plan: Cecil
III
Tell
III
a Denderah, in:
Basta (Cairo 1957)
284-287; Labib Habachi,
name
officials called
applied to a small
'Senwosret
is
town
temple of the pyramid of Senwosret
in Egypt, in
1888-90
small town (350 x 400
Ka-tomb, see cult pyramid
II
Illahun
at
Archaeologically one of the most important settlements fell
it
victim to the inadequate
excavation methods of Flinders Petrie
The Sanctuary of Heqaib, 2 Vols (Mainz 1985).
of workmen
Mighty' by the valley
This
at that time.
m) was surrounded by
a wall
and
divided into individual quarters by a rectangular system of streets. According to the rank of their inhabitants these
Kagemni (Gemnikai) An at
plots
important mastaba (32.5 x 33.3
m)
of the 6th Dynasty
Saqqara, north of the Teti pyramid. The core
partially occupied
is
only
by rooms and includes chambers of
great interest constructed in the shape of large boats.
Another structure erected
in the
masonry
is
a flight of
were occupied by houses of various
from
sizes,
small workers' houses with four rooms (100 sq
m)
to the
eight larger houses for higher officials along the north wall,
which had 70 rooms (2400 sq m); they were
provided with agricultural
facilities
such as vast grain
more than 300
stores which could have provided for
persons per household (house, B).
One
Fig.,
A; grain store, Fig.,
particular administrative property stood
acropolis-like elevation
on an
approached by stairs. Some of the
houses were barrel-vaulted, while others had a
walls were covered with plaster
flat
roof
wooden columns. The
with the ceilings supported on
and
in
some
cases were
decorated with paintings. They had stairs to the roof, grain stores and cellars. Streets were provided with gutters. At the south-west corner are
remains of a temple,
probably the valley temple of the pyramid of Senwosret II.
Among
best
known
artefacts
found are the Kahun
Papyri; there are also items of Middle
and
Tell
Minoan, Cypriot
el-Yahudiya ceramics. The population
is
estimated to have numbered 5000-7000. Bibliography:
W.M. Flinders
Petrie,
(London 1890) 21-32; W.M. Flinders
Kahun, Gurob and Hawara Petrie, Illahun,
Gurob (London 1891) 5-15; W.M. Flinders Plan of the mastaba of Kagemni at Saqqara, with two boat chambers and 'stairs to heaven',
cult
chamber
and two aligned
false
doors on the facade and in the
Petrie,
lahun
Kahun and II
(London
1923) 39-41; Rosalie David, The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt
(London-Boston-Henley 1986).
Kamutef temple (Karnak)
Plan of Kahun, the pyramid temple of Senwosret
Kalabsha An important Augustan
It
at
enclosure 15 forecourt
room
Isis
of
south of Aswan.
a platform, a brick
high with a stone pylon, a pillared
and a free-standing temple building with an
open pronaos, which was a a
km
monumental quay with
m
W.M.F. Petrie)
m long; area of the precinct 66
Talmis in Lower Nubia, 60
consists of a
(after
temple of Mandulis and
Philae (temple building 77
x 92 m),
II
119
for guest gods,
later addition.
Behind
an offering room and a
cult
this are
room, a
roof chapel and crypts hidden inside some walls; there also a small birth house.
are incomplete.
An
The
inscriptions
is
and decoration
investigation of the structures in 1961
revealed the extreme precision of measurements and an
expert system of proportions. The slender proportions and
View of the pronaos of the temple of Kalabsha
wide spacing of the columns are evidence of the influence of classical architecture. 1
The temple was moved
in
96 1 -63 to an elevation on the West Bank of the Nile south
of Philae; an earlier small structure of Ptolemy IX Soter
discovered in
its
II,
foundations during this process, has been
reconstructed at Elephantine; a gateway structure was
moved
Baugeschkhte des Tempels (Mainz 1970); G.R.H. Wright, Kalabsha:
The Preserving of the Temple (Berlin 1970); Dieter Arnold, Die Tempel
LA
III
295-296; G.R.H. Wright, The Ptolemaic Sanctuary of Kalabsha.
Its
von Kalabscha (Cairo 1975);
E. Henfling,
Kalabscha,
in:
Helck,
Reconstruction on Elephantine Island (Mainz 1987).
to Berlin in 1973.
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites Plates
17-22; Henri Gauthier, Le
temple de Kalabcha (Cairo 1911-1914); Hans Stock and Kurt Georg Siegler,
Der
groflte
Tempel Nubiens und das Abenteuer seiner
Rettung (Wiesbaden 1965); Kurt
Siegler,
Kalabsha. Architektur
und
Kamutef temple (Karnak) This
temple
was
erected
by Thutmosis
III
and
Hatshepsut for Kamutef (a manifestation of Amun) along the processional
way which connects
the
Amun and Mut
Kanais
120
precincts.
A pylon
in the brick enclosure walls leads to
The stone temple building,
the avenue of sphinxes. 38.5 x 48.3 festivals
m
in
of Min,
size,
used
performance of
for the
may have been
conceived as an
(Kom Aushim)
Karanis
A city, c. 600 x
1000
m in size, on the north-eastern fringe
of the Faiyum, settled from the Ptolemaic period
onwards
until
some time
in the 5th century
Roman
ambulatory temple. The rows of nine chapels along
stone temples of the
the outer walls are an unusual feature. Opposite the
south, are well preserved.
temple are the remains of the
first
barque
station, with
m)
of stone, with
18.05
Medinet Habu.
to the roof.
Bibliography: Ricke, Kamutefi G. Haeny,
Zum
Kamutef,
in:
GM
90
The north temple
(c.
and the 165
is
some crypts and
(second half of the
and
at its front
stairs leading
The equally well-preserved south temple century
1st
crocodile gods Pnepheros its
AD) dedicated
to the
and Petesuchos, has a podium
outside walls have bosses.
Between 1900 and 1924 the central part of the
was completely removed by diggers
Temple of Khonsupakhred
rJl-nn
Enclosure of
AD)
has two pylons and the main temple building (10.52 x
a similar layout to that of the 18th Dynasty temple of
(1986)33-34.
AD. The two
period, at the north
Mut
sebbakhin),but a large
for ancient
number of houses on
silt
city (Ar.
the fringe of
the town are preserved in excellent condition up to the third floor, including timber door
and window frames,
decorated wall recesses and wall paintings. Other surviving features are barracks, grain stores and finds of
important papyri.
=*<> rnnnn
m
Sanctuary of
Bibliography: Boak, Karanis
first
Kamutef
i
I
I
— II; E.M. Husselmann, The granaries
processional station
of Karanis, G. Castel,
in: Trans,
of the American Philolog. Soc. 83
Un grand bain greco-romain
a Karanis,
in:
(
1952) 56-73:
BIFAO 76 (1976)
231-275; Elinor M. Husselman, Karanis Excavations of the University Plan of the temple of Kamutef opposite and the
Mut
precinct
at
Karnak, with the
first
barque station
and temple of Khonsupakhred
to the south
of Michigan
in
Arbor 1979);
S.
Egypt 1928-1935. Topography and Architecture (Ann
Donadoni, Karanis,
in:
Helck,
LA
III
327-328.
Karnak, see Akhmenu, Akoris chapel, Amun Aten precinct, Khonsu temple,
Kanais, see Wadi Miya
precinct,
Month
Karabasken and Karakhamun, tombs of
precinct,
Mut
precinct,
Opet temple
Large tombs of the 25th Dynasty in the southern Assasif at
Thebes (TT 391 and
223).
The two unexcavated
complexes had temple-like superstructures, 60-80 a
sun court, entrance
recess, pillared hall
Bibliography: Eigner, Grabbauten 40-42.
Month
precinct
General plan of the
monuments
at
Karnak
and
m long,
cult
room.
Kawa An
important cult
site
on the East Bank of the Nile
between the Third and Fourth Cataracts, with temples
Amun
from the 18th Dvnastv onwards.
to
1
)
Khafre, pyramid of
Temple A,
Ramesses
II,
built
by Tutankhamun and usurped by
was enlarged by Taharqa who added
a
121
new corridor was connected to the earlier one. The new burial chamber was divided in two, but the the
pylon, two columned courts and a sanctuary with
separating wall
side-rooms; the decoration tends to be archaistic. The
4.99 x 14.15 m, had a ceiling of relieving slabs, 6.83
smaller temple, B, sanctuary.
is
of a later date;
has a Meroitic
it
The temple of Taharqa, temple
T,
stands inside
and has an avenue of ram-headed
a large enclosure
sphinxes, a pylon, columned court, hypostyle hall, with four rows of four columns,
sanctuary.
Its
and
a
(Tabo).
St.
Wenig, Kawa,
Helck,
in:
LA
III
Vols
378; Hein,
Khabausokar, tomb of double mastaba (FS 3073)
the history of
at
was Tura limestone.
this
Saqqara which
tomb development.
is
important for
belongs to the
It
late
1.2
Its
m, stands
in front of the east side of the
The wide inner courtyard, deep
hall,
side with statues of
situated immediately
was surrounded by 12
colossal statues. Behind this court
mastaba has painted niching.
five
lie
huge
sanctuaries, corresponding to the later group of five statue chapels, presumably intended for barques
The actual place
funerary offerings, with a false door, as
The facade of the
56.2 x
pyramid.
front part, as in the valley temple, consists of a
of the palace facade type, the southern one already D).
at
combination of a wide and a deep pillared hall, both of
statues of the king.
Fig.,
preserved
monumental pyramid temple,
3rd or early 4th Dynasty, and has two cruciform chapels
having a serdab (mastaba,
is
chambers inside
In contrast with the simplicity of the
the pyramid, a
to the west of the
of Khabausokar and
m are
the apex.
the king.
A
This double room,
stone casing
them probably surrounded on each
Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 64.
Hathor-nefer-hetep
and above
Fig.)
A considerable portion of the
1
Laming-Macadam, The Temples of Kawa, 2
Bibliography: M.F.
(London 1949, 1955);
in place.
The bottom two courses of the outer casing
granite (casing,
house of the god with a
plan resembles that of the temples of
Sanam and Argo
high.
no longer
is
pyramid temples,
is
and
for presentation of is
found
in later
lacking because the cult was not
directed to the deceased king, but to the divine aspect of the king in the form of Horus or Re. Situated on the
Bibliography: Reisner, Development 267-269, 387-388.
south side are the remains of a secondary pyramid,
which once stood 21
m
high.
A
structure of
wooden
poles was found outside the front, which was probably
used
to carry a statue to
be buried inside the pyramid.
The valley temple, measuring 45 x 46 m, stands on the desert edge, 494
m further to the south-east. The core of
the walls of both of these temples
is
cut out of the native
rock and cased with limestone and granite. The floors are covered with alabaster slabs,
beams were supported on monolithic (cramp,
Fig.).
and the roof
granite pillars
Within the eastern facade, 12
m high, are
two deep door recesses protected by huge sphinxes or lions.
The main
interior
room
a
is
very well-
preserved T-shaped pillared hall lined with 23 cult
images of the god-king, made of hard stone or alabaster.
One of them, depicting Khafre, pyramid of
the king as a form of Horus,
is
one of the most important statues from Egypt. The
The dimensions of the pyramid
Pyramid of Khafre' and
its
called 'Great
cult
buildings
is
the
(base
made
walls of the valley temple,
of polished granite, are
not decorated.
215.25 sq m, height 143.50 m, angle of slope 53°10
Bibliography: Petrie, Pyramids 96-109; Holscher, Chephren; A. Hafez
approach those of the pyramid of Khufu. OriginahV
Abd
a smaller
project
is
pyramid was envisaged, and
owed
the
with a 3.12 x 10.41 its
to this earlier
(now lower) entrance corridor
m
chamber
gable roof only 2.61
m
cut out of the rock,
high.
The pyramid was
then enlarged with a higher, more southerly central
chamber and
a
new entrance
further up in the casing;
1
54;
el'Al, in:
ASAE
62 (1977) 103-120;
MRA V;
Edwards, Pyramids
Edwards, The air-channels of Chephren's pyramid,
Ancient Egypt, the Aegean,
Dunham
and
the Sudan: Essays in
(Boston 1981) 55-57; M. Lehner and
enigmatic object explained,
in:
P.
in:
Studies in
Honor of Dows Lacovara,
An
JEA 71 (1985) 169-174; Stadelmann,
Pyramiden 130-139; Stadelmann, Pyramiden von Giza 176-191; Lehner, Complete Pyramids 122-133.
Kheker
122
frieze
^
pyramid court
i£H magazines
Irtf zx five
chapels
H__H__H_Jg_Jg__B ^ioii^ilxjJ statue court
~y^rrQTT-DTT°TrJ
a a
.
statue hall
J a 3
a::::tx::::cr:::D:~:a:::.::::
door
recess.
10
a^::D:::.ri::::rr:/-n:::_o:::::n::.Tn:r.rn"i"::
I>@
0-
EEnnnn]
c sphinxes
sphinxes
1 causeway
Right: plan of the
Kheker
pyramid temple of Khafre. Upper
left:
reconstruction of
its
statue court (after H. Ricke); lower
left:
plan of the valley temple.
Khendjer, pyramid of
frieze
The upper decorative element on decorated walls, the kheker derives from early wall hangings,
and
row of
consists of a
upright bundles and knots of the fringe of a carpet or
bundles of reeds. The main variants
are: a)
pointed
at the
The pyramid complex of the 13th Dynasty king Khendjer lies at
South Saqqara. The pyramid had a
m
core, base length 105 cubits (55.125
angle
of slope
55°.
?),
mud
brick
height 37.35 m,
The decorated black granite
top and plain inside, and b) with detailed patterning inside
pyramidion has
(sequence of colours: red, green, blue) and with an open
sarcophagus, weighing 60 tonnes, was lowered by means
calyx-like top.
The
earliest
cinct of Djoser and
at
examples are found
Meidurri.
From
the
in the pre-
New Kingdom,
imaginative variants appear (crowned with sun discs Bibliography:
W.M.
Flinders Petrie, Egyptian Decorative Art
1895) 101-103; E. Mackay, Kheker friezes,
in:
etc.).
(London
Ancient Egypt (1920)
111-122; M. Kolodko-Dolinska, Studies on the kheker frieze in the
temple of Tuthmosis
III
in Deir el-Bahari, in:
RT
14 (1990) 29-60.
survived.
of sand channels. Above
it
The quartzite roof of the was
of limestone relieving slabs,
a weight-relieving roof
itself
brick vault (mastaba, Fig.). There
pyramid temple
to the east
and
roofed over with a
is
evidence for a small
a
north chapel. The
inner enclosure wall was of limestone and niched.
A
smaller queen's pyramid, with two burial chambers,
stood
at
the north-eastern corner.
tomb
Khety,
To the south-west are the remains of another unfinished pyramid precinct of the 13th Dynast)*. Only the inner
rooms of the pyramid were ever completed. The pyramid itself
was planned
to
be 165 x 165 cubits
=
These remains represent a masterpiece of
Kingdom
The 150 tonne
building.
86.625 sq m. late
Middle
quartzite roof of the
of
123
Khentkawes II, pyramid of A small, incomplete pyramid precinct of a
second Queen Khentkawes (wife of Neferirkare, mother of Neferefre and
of Niuserre), which has been excavated south of the
Neferirkare pyramid
at
Abusir. The pyramid probably
measured 50 sq cubits.
sarcophagus was intended to be lowered using sand
Bibliography:
channels; the quartzite ceiling was supported by limestone
107 (1980) 158-164; Miroslav Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost
relieving blocks
and
a brick vault.
A
smaller tomb,
surrounded by a curved wall.
Bibliography: Gustave Jequier, 1933); Gustave Jequier,
Deux pyramides du Moyen Empire
BSFE 91 (1981) 10-12; M. Verner, in: ZAS
ILL,
The
Pyramid Complex ofKhentkaues (Prague 1995).
The
the entrance two granite pyramidia were found. site is still
in:
Pyramids, Abusir (Prague 1994) 116-132; ML Verner, Abusir
possibly for a queen, leads off from the antechamber. At
construction
M. Verner,
(Cairo
Douze ans defouilles dans la necropole memphite
Kheruef, If
it
tomb
of
had been completed, the tomb of Kheruef (TT
the organiser of the sed- festivals of Amenhotep
192),
would
III,
have been the largest of the 18th Dynasty (length 196).
(Neuchatel 1940) 139-155; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 249-254.
situated
is
on the valley
floor of the Assasif,
and
It
is
approached via a ramp leading into an open courtyard, 30 x 30 m, with channelled columns, 10 x sides (unfinished).
The transverse
hall,
1
1/12,
on
all
which normally
follows the court, has been enlarged to
form
a
huge
pillared hall with ten channelled and two rows of ten
papyrus columns. The corridor has a double row of ten papyrus columns and descends lower
to the cult chapels at the
which are surrounded on three sides by
level,
niches for statues.
A
steep corridor from the pillared hall
descends to the rock-cut burial chamber 40
ground
level,
m
below
changing direction three times. The tomb
is
unfinished and severely damaged. Bibliography: The
Tomb of Kheruef, Theban Tomb
192,
OIP
Vol.
102
(Chicago 1980).
Core masonry of the tomb of Khentkawes
Khentkawes
I,
tomb
at Giza, sitting
on a rock base
of
The funerary monument of Queen Khentkawes, the wife of Shepseskaf, mother of Neferirkare and regent, Giza. The superstructure of the
tomb
lies at
consists of an
almost square rock base cased in limestone, 43.70 x 45.80
m in size and 10.50 m high, on top of which stands m high, in the form of a mastaba or a
Plan of the Theban
tomb of Kheruef, TT 192
(after
J.
Knudstat)
a structure, 8
sarcophagus, similar to that of Shepseskaf. The cult
rooms and the
burial
chamber
are within the rock base
and are arranged following the programme of the
royal
Khety,
An
tomb
of
important Theban tomb (TT 3 1
1 )
on the north-facing
tomb complexes of the 4th Dynasty The enclosure wall
slope of the Assasif, dating from the reign of Mentuhotep
has rounded corners. The underlying concept for this
Nebhepetre. Standing against the hillside above the steep
unusual structure settlement
is
is
not known. A well-preserved priests'
located along the
causeway and next
to the
forecourt
26
m
is
a brick facade, extended to
wide and 9
m
entrance to the tomb. Behind
valley temple. Bibliography: Hassan, Giza IV;
MRA
VI; Stadelmann,
Pyramiden
this, a tall corridor,
From
155-158, 174; M. Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids, Abusir
leads to the cult chamber.
leads in the opposite direction
in Giza, in:
16-132;
F.
Arnold, Die Priestersiedlung der Chentkaues
A/DA/*: 54 (1998) 1-18.
14
m
long and lined with decorated slabs of limestone,
(Prague 1994)
1
form a pylon,
high, with a deeply echelonned
the rear wall a tunnel
down
to the lower-lying
decorated burial chamber, likewise lined with slabs. The
124
Khnumbaef
sarcophagus
The
set into the floor.
is
rock chambers
is
41
total
depth of the
m.
Bibliography: H.E.Winlock.in:
BMMA
18
II
(Dec. 1923) 11-19.
Khnumbaef, see Babaef Khonsu, temple of (Karnak) This temple dedicated to Khonsu, 'Opposite of the Sun' (i.e.
the moon),
is
closely connected with the cult of the
Opet temple. This well-preserved building was the reign of
Ramesses
III
Ramesses XI and Herihor. There precursor of this temple, built by
is
no evidence
Amenhotep
pylon had four flagpoles. Behind was a with a rear hall hall, each of
a hall with four
skylight), a cult
good example of the
rows of
five
deity: a
columns (and
strict
architectural style of the late is
The
is
the
barque
fitted
with a
image chamber with side-chambers, and
addorsed temple of King
of the pylon
III.
higher level and a hypostyle
stairs to the roof. Attached to the
the
IV,
for a
pillared court
a side-entrance. Behind
accommodation of the
self-contained
chamber,
at a slightly
them with
started in
and completed by Ramesses
back of the temple
Teos.
The complex
sectional planning
lies is
a
and
Ramesside period. In front
a colonnade of King
Taharqa with four
columns, from which a wide avenue of
sphinxes leads
in the direction of Luxor. Built into the
pylon were numerous blocks originating from the
'houses of millions of years'
in
western Thebes.
Bibliography: Architecturally unexplored, publication expected:
Francoise Laroche-Traunecker, The Temple of Khonsu, Vol.
3;
Maragioglio, L'Architecture; C. Traunecker, Dossiers d'histoire,
Plan of the Khonsu temple
at
Karnak
Pillared court of the
Khonsu temple of Ramesses
III at
Karnak
Khufu, pyramid of Archeologia 101 (1986) 29-33; Auheie, L'Egypte restitute 110-117; C. Traunecker, La chapelle adossee au temple de Khonsu,
167-196;
F.
Laroche-Traunecker, Donnees nouvelles sur
temple de Khonsou,
in:
in:
Karnak VII 313-337; M. El-Molla et
sacree du temple de Khonsou,
in:
workmanship, precision of measurements, mathematical
Karnak VI
les
proportions and the difficulties of
abords du al.,
puzzle
1,
Scenes of King Herihor in the
still
The core of the 'Horizon
literature'.
original height 146.59
limestone.
Khor
Its
m, now 138.75 m)
outer casing
whose
limestone,
size
is
,
consists of local
formed of blocks of Tura
diminishes in height towards the
top of the pyramid. Only a few blocks remain on the
The ruins of
a large fortress dating to the Middle
New Kingdoms, lying on
the West
of Buhen. The enclosure wall 3.5
construction
a flood of mostly
of Khufu' (area 230.38 sq m, angle of slope 51°50 40
Court (Chicago 1979).
and
its
mankind and have unleashed
non-serious 'pyramid
L'allee
Karnak IX 239-262; The Epigraphic
Survey, The Temple of Khonsu, Vol
125
Bank of the
is c.
and
north and west sides following their removal in 1356 by
Nile south
250 x 600
m
Sultan Hassan. Our understanding of the internal
in size
structure
m deep, with semi-circular towers. Inside are the
remains of some structures. Bibliography:
S.
(1916) 162-163;
J.
Vercoutter, Kor est-il Iken? in:
H.S. Smith, Kor: Report
Society at Kor,
or
Clark, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in:
in:
jEA
is
hindered by two unanswered questions:
was the provision of three chambers
3
is it
the result of a change in plans? 2)
in horizontal courses or as sloping
Kush 3 (1955) 4-19;
manner
on the Excavation of the Egypt Exploration
of a step
Kush 14 (1966) 187-221.
from there
to the deepest
rock. Technical
Khufu (Cheops), pyramid of The pyramid of Khufu
at
and
Giza represents the climax of
Egyptian pyramid construction and
is
Its scale,
A
careful
chamber, 30
problems caused
chamber, 21.71
chamber
is
south or
ka-tomb
it
/
m
of the king.
It
^
Tte
step arrangement?
3|
^^4k
^=\
-Sk
lower chamber
Pyramid of Khufu: section from north
to south
to
m down inside the be
left
above ground
-Jp\
-
the 19th
unfinished,
level.
This
probably better interpreted as a secondary,
5v
f
lies at
descending corridor leads
-=3^
granite
the core built
was probably replaced by the middle (so-called
'queen's')
regarded as one of
the architectural wonders of the world.
it
is
mantles after the
mastaba? The entrance
course of the outer casing.
1)
originally intended
through the inner chambers, and a section through the ascending gallery
has an area of 5.23 x
m and
5.76
tombs of
Kings,
126
the
is
relieving slabs. In
first in
Egypt known
east wall
its
is
have a roof of
to
m
a recess, 4.725
high,
not yet been possible. The course of the causeway, 825
with a corbelled vault, possibly for canopies or a ka-
The ascending
statue.
gallery, 46.71
m long and
2.09
Bibliography: Herodotus, History
m
m
can be traced on the ground.
in length,
124-125; Petrie, Pyramids
II
37-95; Ludwig Borchardt, Langen und Rkhtungen der vier Grund-
wide, leads to the upper sarcophagus chamber (portcullis,
kanten dergrossen Pyramide bei Gise (Berlin 1926); Ludwig Borchardt,
This stored the 25-26 blocking stones, which were
Einiges zur dritten Bauperiode der grossen Pyramide bei Gise,
Fig.). let
down
into the lower corridor
when
the
sealed. For reasons of constructional safety
by a 8.46
m
BeitrageBf
was roofed
it
may
high corbelled vault, which
been protected above by relieving
pyramid was
itself
in:
have
(Cairo 1932); J.-Ph. Lauer, Le temple funeraire de Kheops,
1
46 (1947) 245-259; 49 (1949) 111-123;
Goyon, La chaussee monumentale
Transverse
slabs.
ASAE
pyramide de Kheops,
in:
et le
MRA
temple de
IV;
George
la vallee
de
la
BIFAO 67 (1969) 49-69; George Goyon, Le
beams, which prevented the blocking stones slipping
secret des batisseurs des grandes pyramides
down
Lauer, Raison premiere et utilisation pratique de la 'Grande Galerie'
prematurely, were secured in small side-niches.
The granite sarcophagus chamber height 5.84m)
is
(5.84 x 10.49
m above ground level.
43.03
with level granite beams, protected by relieving chambers; four of these
roof of limestone.
From
in section,
the masonry.
open
air,
dans
Mark
a saddle-
in the king's
chamber lead
in: Festschrift
Lehner, The pyramide in:
in:
Ricke 133ff.;
GM
J.
J.-Ph.
Brinks,
48 (1981) 17-23;
tomb of Hetep-heres and
SDAIK
the satellite
19 (1985); Stadelmann, Pyramiden
105-125; Stadelmann, Pyramiden von Giza 103-174; M. Lehner, The
development of the Giza necropolis: The Khufu
20 x
109-143; Zahi Hawass,
(1985)
which lead obliquely upwards through
Those
pyramide de Kheops,
pyramid of Khufu,
flat
the long side walls of the shafts,
la
Die Stufenhbhen der Cheops-Pyramide,
five pressure-
uppermost and central chambers there are
cm
m,
roofed
chambers have a
beams, while the topmost has
ceiling of granite
20
It is
Kheops ( Paris 1 977);
pyramid of Khufu (Gl-d), Pyramids 97-1
to the
19; Lehner,
in:
in:
Project, in:
MDAIKAl
The discovery of the
Studies Simpson
I
satellite
379-398; Edwards,
Complete Pyramids 108-1
19.
while those from the middle chamber end in the
core masonry.
A
robot sent up the southern shafts of the
middle chamber found
way blocked
its
limestone plug with two
after
65
embedded copper pegs
m
by a
Kings,
or pins.
royal ba to enter
They were, rather, intended and
sarcophagus, 98.7 x 105.1 x 227.6 cm,
is
In front of the eastern side of the
remains of the pyramid temple
LA
Helck,
1.
III
in:
496-514.
Early Period, see Abydos, gallery tomb, mastaba,
preserved.
Saqqara
pyramid are the
2.
measuring 40.4 x
(Fig.),
see also Osireion, pyramid,
to allow the
The bottom of the granite
exit.
of,
Bibliography (general): D. Arnold and E. Hornung, Kbnigsgrab,
These channels have been incorrectly explained as ventilation shafts.
tombs
step mastaba
3rd Dynasty, see Djoser precinct, Sekhemkhet, step
mastaba
has basalt paving and there are remains of the
3.
Old Kingdom, see pyramid, and under name of king
bases of the granite pillars which surrounded the court on
4.
Middle Kingdom, see pyramid, and under name of king
5.
New Kingdom
52.5
m.
It
three sides. A cult
door recess at the rear was
chamber, no longer
the entrance to the
in existence. In front of the south-
east corner (at an angle of slope of 52°) are the remains of a
m in area. Three queens'
secondary pyramid, only 23 x 23
pyramids (Gla
=
Hetepheres?, Gib
=
Meritites, GIc
=
Kings of the 17th Dynasty were buried in Dra Abu
Naga
(in
beneath pyramids of brick and cult chapels. Their
Henutsen; base length 47.25 m, height 29 m, angle of slope
location has been lost, although they were discovered
51 or 52°) are preserved along the east side.
plundered in the 19th century AD.
The pyramid of Khufu boat
pits:
is
surrounded by enormous
the two on the eastern side had been robbed,
while the contents of those on the south side were
untouched. From the eastern sensationally well-preserved
was recovered
in 1954
and
pit
wooden
(31.2
m
long), a
boat, 43.4
rebuilt in the
m long,
nearby museum.
el-
western Thebes), in rock tombs situated
The
essential basic
tomb does not appear
when
the
form of the
New Kingdom
until the reign of
above-ground
cult
systems
and
king's
Thutmosis
I,
('house of
millions of years') became spatially separated from the subterranean burial chambers in the Valley of the Kings.
These tombs needed not only
to
house the burial of the
1987 to
king and the attendant funerary goods, but also to
enable explorative photography, which contains another,
provide wall surfaces to accommodate the books of the
The remains of a valley temple
royal afterlife, thus fulfilling the symbolic task of showing
Directly to the west
is
another
as yet unexcavated, boat. (basalt paving
under the
and limestone
village of Nazlet
pit,
bored into
walls) have
in
been found
el-Samman. Excavation has
the king in the barque of the sun
on
its
journey
at
night
through the spheres of the underworld, where the king,
tombs of
Kings,
now in the form
of Osiris, undergoes mystical unification
The principal elements
flights
of stairs
of Thutmosis
and pillared
straight axis, while the
tomb with
are steep corridors or halls. Until the
time
hall of
these tombs had an oval burial
III,
sunk
chamber (representing the 12th hour of the night of the Amduat or, perhaps, the underworld as a whole).
Up
to
were angled
Thutmosis
like
III
Amarna
pillared hall
and ended
Isis.
floor of the pillared hall lead to the
and
are in
in connection with the notion
tombs was abandoned for all
the
in
reign
of
subsequent tombs of
and re-worked condition Ramesside times.
simplified: pillars, side-rooms
An
exceptional
tomb,
KV
5,
at
present
investigated, has a central hall of 16 pillars
additional chambers
a clear tendency to exceed the dimensions of the
multiple burial place for
tomb (wider doors, higher and wider more pillars).
family, or
corridors,
model of
III,
it
may be
members
being
from which
and three corridors branch
dozens of further small chambers. This
predecessor's
Amenhotep
and
The change
of corridors and sarcophagi had increased.
Re. Side-chambers for funerary
to
needed
sloping.
19th Dynasty stairs
and an upper tomb had disappeared; only the dimensions
Steps in the
III
and gently
The plan had become much
in the
more elaborate
Development of Theban kings' tombs from Thutmosis
with the sarcophagus
From the end of the
reflects the situation of royalty in later
equipment become more numerous with time and there is
The lower sarcophagus
pillars,
kings. Their unfinished, usurped
lower sarcophagus chamber, where the Osiris/king
becomes united with
retained.
has eight
Merenptah, providing a model
which was the tomb of the king, now
identified with Osiris as the son of
fundamental idea of the double
is
in the central nave.
of double
The entrance corridors passed
a well shaft (the 'Cave of Sokar')
II
direction of the axis
onwards, the tombs of kings adopted
a lower funerary area).
Ramesses
alternately level
period,
the concept of double tombs (having an upper
a well shaft
onwards, corridors take the place of entrance
tomb entrances Osiris tombs. From the reign of
the
127
Beginning in the reign of Horemheb, tombs have a
with Re. Instead of a facade, the tomb has underground gates.
I
is
off with
either a
of Ramesses
II's
a symbolic structure representing a
the underworld.
showing both 'upper' and 'lower' tombs
Kings,
128
tombs of
Kings' tombs
Ramesses IX
Main
Ramesses XI
valley
and Hatshepsut
Thutmosis
I
Thutmosis
II
Thutmosis
III
Amenhotep
II
Thutmosis IV
Tutankhamun
Horemheb Ramesses
I
Setyl
Ramesses Sons
(?)
II
of Ramesses
II
Merenptah Sety
II
Amenmesse Siptah
Tawosret and Sethnakht
Ramesses
III
Ramesses IV Ramesses
V and VI
Ramesses VII
KV20 KV42 KV34 KV35 KV43 KV62 KV57 KV16 KV17
KV6 KV4
Western valley
Amenhotep
WV22 WV23
III
Ay
tomb
For building techniques, see rock See also the royal tomb Bibliography:
Amarna
at
H.E. Winlock, The
construction.
(4.).
tombs of the kings of the
Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes, in:/E4 10 (1924) 217-277; Elizabeth
Thomas, The Royal Necropoleis of Thebes (Princeton
KV7 KV5 KV8 KV 15
Die religiose Bedeutung der
Kbnigsgrabern der
18. bis 20.
Thomas, The
Elizabeth
sog.
1966);
F.
Dynastie,
'Well' in Kings'
AA
26 (Wiesbaden 1974);
Tombs of Biban el-Moluk,
Graber im Struktur
Tal
der Konige,
in:
ZAS
105 (1978) 59-66; Erik Hornung,
und Entwicklung der Graber im
Tal der Konige, in:
(1978) 59-66; John Romer, Valley of the Kings
Hornung,
Tal der
(New York
(New York 1990) 26-31;
Bemerkungen zu den Konigsgrabern des Neuen 1983) 25-61;
F.
Ramesses
III,
105
Konige (Zurich/Munich 1982), new edition: The
Valley of the Kings
(
ZAS
1981); Erik
Abitz,
H. Altenmiiller,
Reiches,
in:
SAK
10
Kbnig und Gott (AA 40, 1984); A.M. Dodson,
Horemheb
to
in:
JEA 64 (1978) 80-83; Erik Hornung, Struktur und Entwicklung der
KV10 KV47 KV14 KV11 KV2 KV9 KV1
Development of Theban kings' tombs from Horemheb
Abitz,
Grabrauberschachte in den agypt.
showing both 'upper' and 'lower' tombs
Kings,
The Tombs of the Kings of the
ZAS
in:
LA
514-526;
III
early Eighteenth
Dynasty
at
115 (1988) 110-123; W. Helck, Kbnigsgrabertal, F.
Abitz, Die
Thebes,
in:
Entwicklung der Grabachsen
Kbnigsgrabern im Tal der Konige.in:
MDAIK45
Helck, in
den
(1989) 1-25; EAbitz,
Baugeschichte ur.d Dekoration des Grabes Ramses' VI., in: Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis
89 (Freiburg-Gottingen 1989); C.N. Reeves, Valley of the
Kings: The Decline of a Royal Necropolis
(London-New York
1991);
6.
tombs of
Late Period
Rulers of this period their
tombs
who
resided in Lower Egypt had
built in the forecourt of the
their capital city; in
chamber with
of a simple
a small
private
monumental complexes, these were modest
Hornung, The Tomb of Pharaoh
of Egypt being ruled by a divine king.
Munich
1991); C.N. Reeves
Valley of the Kings
and Richard H. Wilkinson, The Complete
(London 1997); Schulz, Egypt 216-243; Kent
Weeks, The Lost Tomb (New York 1997); N. and H. Strudwick, Thebes in
Egypt (London 1999) 92-1
ground
a)
are evidence of the gradually fading concept
Situated south of Mitrahina next to a temple
precinct (250
m
Ramesses
group of tomb chambers belonging to the
II)
a
to the
royal family of the
19.
mortuary temple
erected above this. In comparison with contemporary
tombs and
Grab SethosT. (Zurich/
main temple of
most cases these probably consisted
Erik Hornung, Sety-ein Pharaonengrab (Basel 1991) 32-43; Erik Seti I/Das
129
west of the colossal statue of
22nd Dynasty, including the tomb of
level
A
Kings'
tomb
III at
Wendebadjedet
Tanis.
1
:
Psusennes
I;
2:
Queen Mutnodjmet
(later
King Amenemope);
3:
Sheshonq
II; 4:
Prince Ankhefenmut;
5:
leader of bowmen,
Kiosk
130
Sheshonq, a son of Osorkon
The
II.
front
and inner walls
of these rectangular chambers are richly decorated. b) In 1939
P.
temple precinct
Tanis, the tombs of kings of the 21st
and 22nd Dynasties, some of which were undisturbed.
The
which measures 50 x 60 m, contained the
precinct,
tombs of Kings Psusennes and persons
Amenemope, Osorkon
I,
II,
close to them.
They consisted
of crypts entered via an entrance shaft or
ramp and with
Sheshonq
III
be
Ptolemy
and Ptolemy
I
II
for Alexander,
was replaced
it
by Ptolemy IV with the construction of a mausoleum jointly for
Alexander and the
earlier Ptolemies.
The
later
Ptolemies were buried in individual structures, some of
them taking
the shape of a pyramid; they were destroyed
towards the end of the 3rd century AD. Bibliography: Strabo, Geographica XVII
an antechamber and longish tomb chamber. They were potentially threatened
to
situated in a western part of the palace grounds. Set up by
Amun
Montet discovered, within the
at
Alexander the Great), a burial complex thought
794; Zenobius
1,8,
H. Thiersch, Die alexandrinsche Konigsnekropole,
by sub-soil water and so were not
55-97; P.M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria
I
in:
III
94;
JDAI 25 1910) (
(Oxford 1972) 15-17.
very deeply sunk below the paving of the court. There are three
tomb chambers (with
number
a large
blocks). Their superstructures,
of re-used
which may have been
like
Kiosk, see also barque station,
A
shady covering,
like
a
canopy
canopy, resting on wooden
those of the tombs of the kings of Sais, have completely
columns, converted in Egyptian architecture to a structure
disappeared. Only 4 out of probably 17 tombs of this kind
built of stone.
of the 21st-22nd Dynasties have been found.
rectangle of columns or pillars (4
c) (
The
burial
complex of the 26th Dynasty kings
Apries, Amasis) was, according to an ancient description,
on),
found in
It is
many
places, consisting of a
x
4 x
6,
8,
6 x 8 and so
which were linked by a screen wall. Some kiosks
open
to the sky; others are roofed
are
with timber beams and
situated in the forecourt of the temple of Neith at Sais; the
canvas. Kiosks served to protect cult images and the
tomb of Amasis was, on
barques of gods after they had emerged from the temple.
above
that evidence, constructed
ground and surmounted by a kiosk with palm columns.
For this reason they often stood on a processional route or
The location of the tombs, destroyed by the army of
on
Cambyses, has not yet been discovered. A sarcophagus
Kingdom onwards (Chapelle Blanche), and were
of Psamtek d)
has been found
II
Some
at
(?)
Damanhur.
particularly popular in the Ethiopian period: there are
indications have been found for the existence
of a 29th Dynasty royal necropolis (Nephritis) in the southeastern corner of the temple precinct of Mendes.
The tomb
chapels were destroyed by the Persians in 343 BC. The 30th
Dynasty tombs of Teo and Nectanebo probably
Sebennytos, are
at
Nectanebo
II
in the British to
was found re-used
at
II,
which were
(the sarcophagus of
lost
Alexandria and
Museum). The tomb of Nectanebo
I
now
is
likely
is
have been somewhere in the Memphite area.
Bibliography:
Scheschonk,
For
a):
ASAE
in:
A.
54 (1956) 153-177. For (I
Paris 1947,
1960); R. Stadelmann, Das Grab
Konigsgrabes
der Spatzeit,
in
in:
MDAIK
27 (1971)
V, Plate
III
Roman examples
(roof chapel) and Qertassi and
at
of Augustus at Philae (15.4 x 20.7 high). at
From
the
Naga, which
Roman
is
in:
is
the Meroitic kiosk
L4
Umgang 13-20; A.M. Badawy,
Egyptian temple,
III
in:
ZAS
102 (1975); W. Helck,
441-442.
111-123; Tanis, L'or
1987) 200-272; George
II
169-175,
III
c):
16.
41; Henri Gauthier, Le livre des wis d'Egypte
IV (Cairo 1916) 181, 191; Hanna }enni, Das Dekorationsprogramm des
Sarkophages Nektanebos' Bull.
7.
II,
Aegyptiaca Helvetica 12 (Geneva 1986);
Canadian Mediterranean
Institute 13
(1993)
4.
Ptolemies
Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies are buried
Sema (Soma)
at
in the
the centre of Alexandria (tomb of
Dendera
the vast kiosk
modelled on Egyptian kiosks.
to the
Helck,
is
Karnak,
m at the base, 15.45 m
period there
Bibliography: Borchardt, Tempel mit
Kiosk,
exist at
Philae
Paris
de Tanis (Ed. Persea 1987). For
Strabo, Geographica XVII 802; Herodotus, History
For d): Description
temple of El-Kharga.
at
at the Hibis
Montet, La
Paris 1951,
LA VI 376-377;
des pharaons, Exhibition Catalogue (Paris tresors
Karnak, Luxor, the Month precinct
im Tempelhof, der Typus des
R. Stadelmann, Tempelbestattung, in: Helck,
Goyon, La decouverte des
b): Pierre II
several at
Medinet Habu (18th Dynasty temple) and
The approach
Badawy, Das Grab des Kronprinzen
necropole royale de Tanis, 3 Vols
from the Middle
a platform. Kiosks are attested to
The kiosk of Nectanebo
I
in the Hibis
temple
at
El-Kharga
Kom Ombo Kom
Auskhim, see Karanis
pronaos with three rows of This
Kom
el-Abd
five
Ruins of a brick structure of the 18th Dynasty, 3.5
km
m in height, surrounded by an
B.J.
Kemp
was used
to
for the erection of tents at
The podium might have been
employed
kiosk similar
to that at
Kom
el-Samak (Malqata). Bibliography: in: JEA
B.J.
columns), three antechambers (among them an
granite bases for the barques of the gods. There was a
a royal hunting camp. as a throne
high.
enclosure
and two smaller houses. According
this site
m
room and a chamber for guest gods), and the two sanctuaries, surrounded by corridors, with black
wall and approached by a ramp. Adjacent are three relatively large
columns, 12
followed by a pillared hall (with two rows of
is
m
south of the palace of Malqata, consisting of a 40 x 45
podium, 3.75
five
131
offering
New
with wabet located in the
Year's festival court
northern half of the temple; this differs from the temples of Edfu and Dendera because of the temple's location on the East Bank.
Many crypts
are built into
the temple walls.
The majority of a once large birth house of Ptolemy IX
Kemp, A building of Amenophis
III,
Kom
el-'Abd,
63 (1977) 71-82.
Euergetes
II
(Physkon), which stood directly in front of
away by the
the temple, has been swept
Nile.
The
proportions of the temple are extremely accurate and
Kom
el-Ahmar, see Hierakonpolis
superbly executed in terms of building techniques and sculpting. Earlier structures (12th Dynasty, Amenhotep
Kom Ombo A
Thutmosides, Ramesses
double temple of Sobek and Horus, built in several
phases. The erection of the
began
in
main part of
the temple
the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor,
and
Bibliography: Description
Kom Ombos, in: antique,
I
AD. The temple has two parallel sanctuaries, each with
d'Edfou
A
stone enclosure wall (50.9 x
are attested to
de
Kom Ombo,
Plates 39-46; Jacques de
?); P.
Kom-Ombo,
Les textes
ASAE
52 (1952) 221-228; A. Gutbub,
et leur etude, in: Textes et
columned
239-247; A. Gutbub, Textes fondamentaux de
The entrance through the stone
Ombo
but a double portal. Beyond the court
A. Gutbub,
Plan of the temple of
lies
the magnificent
Kom Ombo, showing construction periods
(see text)
et al.,
de 1'Egypte
Lacau, Notes sur les plans des temples
in:
pharaonique, Vol.
court.
Morgan
et inscriptions
96 m) surrounded both the temple proper and the enclosure, which faces the Nile, was not an actual pylon
I,
by blocks.
2-3 (Vienna 1895-1909); Alexandre Badawi, Kom-Ombo,
Sanctuaires (Cairo 1952
a separate approach.
)
Catalogue des monuments
decoration continued into the 2nd and 3rd centuries
et
I,
II
(Cairo
3,
Hommage
a
J.-F.
langages de 1'Egypte
Champollion (Cairo 1972) la theologie
de
Kom
1972, 1973); Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 259-261;
Kom Ombo, in:
Helck,
LA
III
675-683.
.
Koptos
132
Hommes
Koptos
(1988) 35-59; Claude Traunecker, Coptos,
Ruins of a formerly important town, which was
parvis de Geb, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 43 (Leuven 1992).
et
dieux sur
le
destroyed prior to scientific research at the end of the 19th century with almost nothing saved.
A
large temple
m, had an gateway. Two pylons
precinct of Min, measuring 235 x 260
enclosure wall 10 used
m thick with a
to lead to a triple
temple for Hathor/Isis, Min and
Horus, built by Ptolemies II— IV. There are remains of
some Hathor columns from the
Roman
approach
stairs (see
some remains of of Thutmosis pillars
10
m high. Enlargements dating
period provided three sets of parallel
Kubban (Quban) A
to the
70 x 125 m, fortified by semi-circular turrets, and
and
earlier buildings of the
Old
m
Kingdom, and of
Naqada
II
to
in
III
renewed
in the
II,
Graeco-Roman
the northern border of the area of ruins at
Modern Egypt and Thebes
(London 1843) 129-130; W.M. Flinders ?elrk,Koptos (London 1896); Reinach, Rapports sur
III
737-740;
B.
les Fouilles
de Koptos (Paris 1910); R. Weill,
LA
97-141; G.H. Fisher, Koptos,
in:
Helck,
Williams, Narmer and the Coptos Colossi,
in:
JARCE 25
(
191
1
)
Wadi es-Sebua andAdindan (Cairo 1935) 26-33. '
Kumma
Rectangular fortress, covering approximately 70 x
projecting rock on the East
is
5.5-6
m
in thickness,
Amenhotep
II.
uncertain.
one
place,
in the north-west
and
III
The sanctuary has two
re-built
statue
by
chambers
The temple was removed to Khartoum
Bibliography:
S.
is
in 1966.
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in:/E4 3
Dunham and
Forts, Vol. 2
Jozef Janssen,
at
Kumma, showing
stone and of mud brick
Semna Kutnma,
(Boston 1960) 113-128; Ricardo
Semna-Kumma, 2 Vols (London
Plan of the temple
Koptos
m,
and four antechambers. The history of its construction
A. Caminos,
at
17
the Nile opposite
projects in
embracing
by Hatshepsut and Thutmosis
Second Cataract
Min
Bank of
Semna. The enclosure wall, which
(1916) 172-174; Dows
Sketch plan of the temple complex of
1
dating originally from the 5th Dynasty, constructed on a
corner a small stone-clad temple built of brick, founded
the small temple of El-QaPa.
Bibliography: Sir Gardner Wilkinson,
and Survey between
Bibliography: Walter B. Emery, The Excavations
period.
taken up by the
between the remains of a 'middle
temple of Thutmosis
I.
outside the walls of the fortress
high, indicate the
consecutive gate structures of Caligula and Nectanebo
1 1
in-
cluded a keep with bastions and a gate. It was strengthened
several temples, found both inside
measuring 27 x 36 m, with granite
III,
ASAE
a
Old
Geb, with three
in:
had
It
and renewed under Sety
remains of a temple, possibly
Koptos,
entrance
at the
where there are gold mines.
earlier structure of the
is
A.J.
on the East Bank of the Nile
There are the remains of an
The south-west corner of the enclosure
On
I
south of Aswan,
in the reign of Senwosret III
existence of a cult structure from the
is
Allaqi,
km
are
Kom Ombo). Lying below these
colossal statues of Min, 4.3
Koptos
10
rectangular enclosure wall, measuring approximately
and Middle Kingdoms. The remains of three unique
period.
Wadi
1
the foundations of an earlier structure
and re-used parts of
accommodating
fortress of Senwosret
opposite Dakka,
1998).
the division between the use of
L
Amenemhat
Labyrinth, see
sufficient
III
depth
to achieve a
continuous
level
upper edge.
work by
Dovetailing of blocks required time-consuming
Laying blocks
stonemason
at the
time they were
Walls were erected on the levelled upper surface of the
(cramps) was carried out
foundation blocks. Casing blocks are frequently found
touch joint was dressed to
placed in deepened bedding grooves, whereas the core
Bibliography: Clark,
masonry
/Carnal 109-113.
rested
on the raised boss of the foundations.
laid.
as needed, fit
a
Hence, dowelling
and the
free
end of a
the next block (anathyrosis).
AEM 96-1 16; Arnold, Building
1
15-120; Golvin,
Blocks were transported on sledges or rollers and levered
sideways (not from the front) into position. Holes for
Lever
levers were provided in the surface of the blocks of the
Levers, along with ropes
lower course and in the block to be side).
The holes were closed with
being carried out
used as
a
carefully. Fine
From
lubricant.
10-30
gypsum
gypsum mortar was the
12th
often
Dynasty, and
were the basic
rollers,
and turning loads (sliding blocks,
in lifting,
Fig.;
pushing
transport). The
use of levers and their size can be recognised from leverage holes: often 20 x 30 cm.
pyramids have leverage holes
m long, were roughened
surface,
mortar
to 3
mortar. In pharaonic buildings, grooves for
gypsum on some
where work was
and
equipment used by Egyptian workers
a course of blocks for the application of
cm wide and up
on the surface of
plaster
the lever
and Roman periods, strips of
increasingly in the Ptolemaic stone,
moved (on
which were
filled
after the blocks
The casing blocks of
the lower edge of the side
at
in with pieces of stone or
had been put
(Bent Pyramid, Khufu, Senwosret
into place
Depending on
I).
touch joints were less carefully dealt with. In
requirements, often whole series of levers were deployed
cases joints were deliberately held open by the
on larger blocks, each one operated by several workmen
insertion of grids of
wood
gypsum. Walls were erected
to enable later filling
starting
with
from both corners.
thin stone closed any resulting gap, in
some
A
cases fitted
using a rope which ran through a channel. The use of
Period.
New
the raising, shifting
and overturning of obelisks).
raising
and underpinning one end of the
load.
experiments confirm the capabilities of using
Modern
levers.
was
Bibliography: Engelbach, Obelisks 24, 37; Reisner, Mycerinus 74-75,
Egypt and only developed in the Late
272; Pierre Lacau and Henri Chevrier, line chapelle d'Hatshepsout
regular courses of rectangular block rare in pharaonic
masonry
(e.g. in
Levers were suitable for vertical movement, alternately
(ashlar)
blocks were set into the lower course to a
(Cairo 1977) 9; Arnold, Building 71-72, 270-271.
Fitting a block
by means of levers and leverage holes
Lime The use
in
Egypt of burnt lime
is
not attested to until the
Ptolemaic period; in prior periods Laying of wall blocks, either
in a
pre-prepared sunken bed (A) or a
subsequent deepening of the ground
level at the foot
of the wall (B)
taken by pure gypsum. Latest was earlier use at Meidum.
its
place
is
usually
results reveal that there
)
134
Limestone
Bibliography: Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials
and
Industries
(London 1962) 74-76; Jean Jacquet, Le Tresor de Thoutmosis
Ier
(Cairo 1994) 125-26; Arnold, Building 291-294.
Limestone One
of the most
commonly used
building materials of
Egypt, from the 1st Dynasty onwards (tombs
at
Helwan,
became especially prominent in the Old Kingdom in mastabas and pyramids. In the Middle Kingdom sandstone started to of Djoser), which
the precinct
compete with
in construction
it
work, but limestone
continued to be used in the Hatshepsut temple and
Ramesses used
temples
II 's
in the
at
Abydos.
porous limestone of an inferior
1
mostly 2)
in
was occasionally
It
Ptolemaic period. The two main variants quality,
are:
which was used
foundations and the core masonry of
walls,
harder and better-quality limestone, mainly used in
visible surfaces, casings
of limestone
and
similar.
The
specific gravity
and 2.65-2.85 (dense).
1.7-2.6 (porous)
is
Stone quarries are widespread from Tura and Masara, near
Cairo,
Bibliography: Clark,
Method of lowering the lid of a sarcophagus
in the
tomb of Neferibre-Sa-
Neith at Saqqara
down
Egypt
to
Mo' alia.
AEM
Kalkstein, in: Helck, LA Pierres 61-69;
Middle
throughout
El-Dibabiyah, near
III
12-21; Lucas,
AEMI 52-55;
C. Traunecker,
301-303; Arnold, Building 27-36; De Putter,
Klemm, Steine 29-197;
Nicholson, Materials 40-42.
Lowering heavy loads Sarcophagi and sections of tomb chambers weighing several tonnes were lowered either through sloping
Rope grooves and
corridors or in deep shafts.
drill
holes
in the lids of sarcophagi, as well as in blocking stones,
plus sockets for shafts,
show
beams
in the side walls of corridors
that ropes
and
were used which passed over
revolving beams, occasionally involving a change of
mastaba
direction. In the
stones of 6-7 tonnes were
Paving
slabs
at
Beit Khallaf, blocking
let
down
25
m
on ropes.
were frequently lowered into place using
ropes passing through grooves and could be easily lifted again. In the late 12th
Dynasty and
shafts of the Late Period the heavy
in the vast
tomb
roof of the burial
chamber was lowered with the help of free-flowing sand, chamber was still open,
in the following way: while the
the block rested on four posts standing in shafts filled
with sand. As the sand was removed, the props would sink into the shafts and the
sarcophagus.
lid
would be lowered onto the
One must assume
that
heavy loads were
lowered into shafts by digging away the sand directly below, but there
caisson method
is
is
no evidence
attested
for this; however, the
to.
Bibliography: Arnold, Building 73-79
Luxor,
Lowering the quartzite roofing blocks of the burial chamber
pyramid of Khendjer
at
Saqqara
in the
temple of
One of the most important Egyptian temples, connected to Karnak by a 2.5 km long avenue of sphinxes (Fig.) to form an essential component of the Theban cult and
Luxor, temple of
temple programme. The temple, erected by Amenhotep
135
III,
replaced an earlier structure set up during the Middle
Kingdom and modified by Hatshepsut. The
front section
of the original complex (a barque station for the triad of
Karnak) consists of a large columned court onto which a
pronaos opens with 32
particularly beautiful papyrus
columns (abacus,
Behind
offering
room and
and Khonsu with
Fig.).
the
lies
the pillared hall,
barque chambers The
their side-rooms.
for
Amun, Mut
rear part
is
a cult
Amun, consisting of a transverse pillared hall (compare Akhmenu), the Amun sanctuary and many statue chapels. In front of the columned court,
Colonnaded court of the temple of Luxor
forming the closing element of the temple, Tutankhamun
burial of 26 royal
constructed what was in effect a gigantic closed kiosk in
Museum) was
the form of a colonnade consisting of two lines of seven
Amenhotep
place for a local
and divine
Bibliography: Description
of clerestory windows. Ramesses
Geschichte des Luqsortempels,
complex
to a length of
columned court and the western of which
a
245
m
extended the whole
with the addition of a
pylon with two obelisks
was taken
in front,
to Paris in 1831. In front
of the facade of the pylon and in the forecourt are 16
colossal statues of Ramesses
usurped from Amenhotep
II.
III,
more
Five
colossi,
were added on the
occasion of the second sed-festival of Ramesses front of the pylon,
Shabaka erected
of five columns, as an additional
barque
The temple of Luxor served station for
Amun
II.
a hall with four
In
rows
station.
III,
Plates 6-18; Plate 62; L. Borchardt,
way
of Karnak and the rites connected with
Vols (Paris 1957);
103- 1 107;
Barguet, Luxor,
P.
the temple as the location for the annual celebration of to
him of
the divine ka has recently been discussed. In the
Roman
period
it
formed the centre of
a fort (fortress) with an
imperial cult place in the eight-column
hall.
An
ancient
Helcks,
LA
III
JNES
44 (1985) 251-294; M. Azim, Le grand pylone de Louxor: un
essai
L. Bell,
Luxor temple and the
d'analyse architecturale et technique, Vercoutter (Paris 1985) 19-34. W.J.
in:
Melanges
offerts
a Jean
Murnane, False doors and
cult
Gamal Eddin Mokhtar
practices inside Luxor Temple, in: Melanges
Ka
royal,
Dossiers
histoire et arche'ologie 101 (1986); Afrere, L'egypte restituee 127-141; C.
van Siden, A Kiosk
(?)
of Shabako at Luxor Temple, Varia
versteck
and the awarding
in:
cult of the royal ka, in:
1
ten-day festivals and the valley
The concept of
Zur
34 (1896) 122-138; R.A.
Helmut Brunner, Die sudlichen Rdume des Tempels
von Luxor (Mainz 1977);
Aegyptiaca 6 (1990) 177-183;
the divine birth of the king
ZAS
Schwaller de Lubicz, Le temple de I'homme: L'apet du sud a Louxor, 3
the renewal of the world observed at the Opet festival, festival.
in:
(Cairo 1986) 135-148; Egypte, Louqsor Temple du
as an important
Luxor
in the
1989 in the court of
III.
papyrus columns (inside height 21.20 m),lit by two rows II
(now
statues
discovered in
Bell,
Mohammed
El-Saghir,
Das Statuen-
im Luxortempel, Antike Welt 22 (Special Issue 1991); Lanny
The New Kingdom
'divine' temple: the
example of Luxor,
in:
Byron Shafer, Ed., Temples of Ancient Egypt (Cornell 1997) 127-184; X.
and H. Strudwick, Thebes
in
Egypt (London 1999) 67-71. For
obelisk in Paris: Prisse d' Avenues, Histoire, Plate 62; Bernadette
Menu,
L'obelisque de la Concorde (Paris 1987).
colonnade of
Tutankhamun and Horemheb
iiiii • m fiiii • m |
* * * *
•••••••• of Shabaka
5G
Plan of the temple of Luxor, showing construction periods
100
M Malqata A palace town
door frames were inlaid with faience and ornamented with of
Amenhotep
Bank, situated next to the vast,
Habu) on
basin (Birket king's
its
III c.
on the Theban West
200,000 sq
eastern side
m harbour
and south of the
'house of millions of years'. Standing
northern end
temple of
is
at
its
a festival hall associated with a brick-built
Amun.
Further to the south are the separate
North and Main Palaces, and the South Palace, joined the latter by
its
eastern wing. The
Main
Palace,
to
57 x
c.
golden rosettes, gilded plaster figuring and inlaid wooden cavetto cornices.
framed by Fig.).
After the
town
in the reign of
was destroyed by rain and
fires as well as
abandonment of
falling victim
with a bedroom and bathroom. The centre the festival hall, 30 eight carved
is
taken up by
m in length, furnished with two rows of
wooden columns onto which
four separate
individual apartments open on both sides (probably not 'harims').
The
interior
was
and
richly decorated: walls
dwellings and workmen's
within a wall, and the 'South Village').
haU, adjacent to which
accommodation
bedroom; ceiling construction,
many individual
settlements (the 'North Village', the "West Village' enclosed
Horemheb,
the suite of royal
of the wall and ceiling paintings
rosettes in the
There are
135 m, has an outside reception courtyard and a throne lies
Some
are largely capable of reconstruction (egrets in flight
it
to
the
inexpert excavation methods and
subsequent vandalism. 2.5
km
to the south lies
approachable by ramps Bibliography:
(Kom el-Abd).
Robb de Peyster
Tytus,
A
Preliminary Report of the
Re-excavations of the Palace of Amenhotep III
(New York
jil>-
Efi
Remains of wall and
ceiling paintings in
Amenhotep
Ill's
bedroom
Kom
el-Samak, a throne kiosk standing on a high platform and
in the palace of
Malqata
'
~^b
1903);
Masonry H.E. Winlock, The
work of
the Egyptian Expedition, in:
BMMA
(1912) 185-189; H.G. Evelyn-White, The Egyptian Expedition,
BMMA BMMA
10 (1915) 253-256; A.Lansing,
(March 1918) 4-18;
13
Amenophis and
III at
An
O'Connor,
D.
and Underwater Exploration
Museum
University
30th Dynasty onwards, 'building' in a stricter sense
The Great Lake of
developed, in that carefully prepared blocks of equal size
ancient Nile harbour, University
excavations at the'Birket Habu',
in:
The
3 (1974)
Inter,
73- 1
1
B.
Kemp
Museum
journ. of Nautical Arch.
101-134; D. O'Connor, The
and shape were used, being laid
masonry
in pharaonic buildings prove that Egyptian
builders were aware of the two different approaches to
LA
III
building in stone; however, in most cases they opted for
1
in:
Helck,
50- 1 5 1 Malqata-South ;
I
Kom
Tokyo 1983); Shin-ichi Nichimoto.The ceiling paintings of the harem palace of Malqata,
in:
GM
127 (1992) 69-80; Studies on
the Palace of Malqata. Investigations at the Palace of
1985-1988 (Waseda
Long experience with
building in brick and the occasional appearance of ashlar
in:
77; Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee
at the
in regular courses of equal
heights (isodomic construction).
traditional
el-Samak, Archeological and Architectural Reports (Waseda University,
rooms
the
excavations at the palace-city of Malkata,
Expedition 21 (1979) 52-53; D. O'Connor, Malqata, 1 1
From
into buildings, creating cave-like hollow spaces.
in:
BIE 20 (1938) 51-61;
in:
of masonry which were then, like sculptures, carved
in:
The Egyptian Expedition,
R. Engelbach,
Medinet Habu,
1
137
University,
Malqata
Tokyo 1993).
methods.
The core masonry of Egyptian stone structures before the
New Kingdom
usually consisted of rough
blocks of local stone cased within better material. The
showed no gaps, and could be
surface of the wall ideally
decorated or inscribed. The direction of joints and surface condition was therefore unimportant.
Mammisi, see birth house
Egyptian masonry can be divided into types, in the place according to the internal structure of the
first
Marble A type of stone which exclusively
masonry, as follows: is
relatively rare in
vessels
for
and
Egypt and used
sculptures,
obtained
predominantly from Gebel el-Rocham (Eastern Desert). Bibliography (general): Luciana and Tiziano Mannoni, Marble. The History of a Culture in:
Helck,
LA
III
(New York-Oxford
1985); R. Gundlach,
Marmor,
1194-1195; De Putter, Pierres 108-110; Klemm,
Steine 427-429; Nicholson, Materials 44-45.
Rough stone
la)
A
known from
depictions, surrounded by gardens
pond or
canal.
two building complexes south of
texts
and
and situated near
The only examples so
Free-standing vertical walls, using rectangular
lb)
through-stones; often used to separate rooms,
Amarna
(El-Hauwata),
known from
inscriptions, but their intricate layout remains largely a us.
They
are interpreted as miniature repre-
to
be traversed by the sun god on his journey through
the night.
The Maru temples associated with Ptolemaic
temples also have a connection with the cult of the sun. Bibliography: Peet, City ofAkhenaten
Roi Menibre a Edfou,
in:
1
109-124; Chassinet, Le mar du
BIFAO 30 (1930) 299-303;
Alliot,
Le Culte
and rounded top
Id) Walls of ashlar large
stones.
and regularly shaped
Secondly, support
masonry
Reich,
in:
MDAIK 25
JEA 42 (1956)
(1969) 159-178.
2c)
During pharaonic times, stone construction
in
Egypt was
frequently found, the
Rock core walls cased with blocks or
A third is
slabs.
typology based on the structure of the surface
less clear-cut:
3a) Rectangular stonework consisting of stepped courses.
3b) 'Trapezoidal' stonework
not a truly separate type
is
but occurs in a variety of masonry. True polygonal
masonry, which
is
found frequently outside Egypt
Masonry
is
unknown
(in
in Egypt.
consisting of blocks of regular size, laid in
courses of equal height with regular changes of joints
(isodomic construction),
dominated by the archaic practice of piling up huge blocks
is
2d) Walls built of block masonry cased with blocks or slabs.
3d)
Masonry, see a/so brick construction, casing, core masonry, pyramid construction
of
2b) Rough stone masonry walls cased with blocks or slabs.
3c)
in:
des Sonnengottes im
made
2a) Walls of irregular rough stone masonry.
A. Badawi, Maru-Aten: pleasure resort or temple?, als Kultstatte
thick,
blocks.
Greek and Inca architecture),
Neuen
consisting of a
masonry several blocks
d'Horus a Edfou au temps des Ptolemees (Cairo 1949-54) 575, 581;
58-64; R. Stadelmann, Swt-R'w
infill,
most common variants being:
sentations of the cosmos, reflecting the watercourses which
had
with an
lc) Free-standing walls
a
far discovered are
possibly to be identified with the Maru-aten
mystery to
of irregular stones set into
rough stone core with an outer casing; often noticeably
also barque station, Meret
type of sanctuary mainly
made
blocks, only one or two stones thick with headers used as
inclined
Maru temple, see
walls
sand and mortar, usually with a steep batter.
A mixture
is
less
of techniques
is
common.
frequently found.
uncommon.
3e)
Wholly irregular masonry
3f )
A form common in brick construction, consisting of
is
very
regularly alternating layers with headers is
rare in stone
masonry
(see talatat).
and
stretchers,
Mastaba
138
la
I
fajk
"
2a
fi/f
-
/Q <
-4::::
f— >;;;-
lb
.::"¥
r
"
j
V_
2c
2d
-v
S^c
L
i
r %
i
1
3b
3a
£»
\
\
"\
J 1 3f
T
3d
Schematic diagrams showing patterns of masonry.
from the
1:
free-standing walls in cross-section;
Bibliography:
ClarM£A/, 96-1 16; Arnold, Building 148-158;
Golvin,
Karnak 80-83, 111-112.
Mastaba A free-standing
3:
free-standing walls
= 'bench'), forming
of earth as a 'house of the dead'. (the
in
Egypt. With the
earliest
Saqqara and Tarkhan)
From
examples
until the
a stylised
the time of
at
Naqada,
end of the Middle
Kingdom, the mastaba, together with the rock tomb, was
became
the
beginning there were two variants,
which were created and interpreted as pair (Upper versus
initially
open
cult
a contrasting
Lower Egyptian, nomadic versus
rural, royal versus non-royal
type was smooth,
its
?).
The
exterior of the first
east-facing side having two
places
embodying tomb (serdab.
(false door),
the Egyptian concept of the house Fig-)-
a purely
form of tomb.
From tomb, the superstructure of which
sloping walls (Ar. mastaba
Unification
tomb
introduction of the pyramid, mastabas
resembles a rectangular mass of brick or stone with
the
retaining walls with casing blocks;
the predominant type of
private
mound
2:
front
Mastaba The second
variant
represented by the
1st
is
more
striking
Dynasty tombs
at
and
primarily
is
Menes), Giza, Saqqara and Tarkhan. Their
all
was superseded by
sides
is
made
They were probably
of brick and protrudes at the front;
it
later to the
The core of the mastaba
cross-walls into
up
to
50
cells (cellular
necessities (Giza, el-Deir).
form
in the
Dynasty
1st
2nd Dynasty,
the east side
first to
in
and
west wall of the corridor, which had by now been
placed in front of the facade. The niching was originally in the form of small sections, which soon changed to
is
surrounded by a brick enclosure wall and rows of servants' tombs.
a simpler
which the niching was confined
covered with a vaulted top with raising side walls. The
base
life's
The predominantly niched mastaba of the
with richly colourful paintwork, intended to represent a royal palace or divine fortress.
of this
all
Saqqara, Beit Khallaf, Raqaqna, Naga'
size varies
15-25 x 40-60 m) and they are niched on
(c.
installations reflect
Naqada (tomb of
139
projections
and recesses decorated with
flat
become
grooves.
divided by
In the 3rd Dynasty a decisive change in Egyptian
construction);
religious concepts about death brought about a separation
is
the five central cells below the surface are burial
and modification
chambers and magazines. They were constructed
tombs. Moreover, the realisation that accumulations of
and roofed
pits
then
after the burial using
filled in. Built inside
some
as
open
heavy beams and
in the construction of private
grave goods would
brick mastabas there are
fall
and
royal
victim to robbery brought an
elaboration of the ritualistic provision for the dead, with
abandonment of
shallow (not visible) symbolic mounds. Later, the rooms
the
above ground were also expanded into magazines.
which were replaced by burial chambers accessible via
tombs
As
became
increasingly
expensive,
simple vertical shaft
the
Dewen onwards,
accessible by a stairway
complex
in
this led to the
tomb being
air,
from outside. The type of tomb
in stages until
front of the cult place
development reflected
dwelling. Their
vast
it
became
a
mastaba. The
open
to the
a chapel built into
the core of the mastaba or an independent structure in
2nd and 3rd Dynasties, with the
1st
subterranean rooms becoming copies of the deceased person's
changed
Dynasty was
use until the end of the
further developed in the
in the centre of the
principal cult area, which had formerly been
superstructure had to be complete prior to the burial,
and, from
extensive subterranean complexes,
start of a conflict
It
Atet, Fig.).
was the
The
also the
which continued throughout the Old
Kingdom concerning
magazines and bath
(Nefermaat and local tradition.
the establishment of cult
rooms
in
D
Cult B:
chambers of the Old Kingdom
at
Giza and Saqqara, located either on the east side of the mastaba or built into the mastaba core. A: Seneb at Giza;
Giza 7140; C: typical plan for the 4th Dynasty
at Giza;
D:
Khabausokar
at
Saqqara; E-F: typical plan for the 5th Dynasty at Saqqara
Mastabat el-Fara'un
140
originally conceived as a solid building.
chamber being almost completely taken up by the
Initially, at
the change from the 3rd to the 4th Dynasty,
sarcophagus. Following the model of the pyramid of Unas,
cult niches
appeared as cruciform chapels, decorated for
the walls are inscribed
what had been
the
first
time (for example Akhtihotep, Khabausokar,
Hesyre,
Nefermaat, anonymous
Metjen,
mastaba No. 3078). The model
Saqqara was
for the decoration
based on the decorated slab over the
false
door which
and decorated with
It is
difficult to create a
guishing elements
tomb owners,
influence, economic considerations
brick structure in front of the stone mastaba.
The
earliest
chances of
life
after
improve one's
to
death with the help of a statue led to
the construction, within the mastaba, of inaccessible
of distin-
requirements, local styles, royal
cult
and the space
available
for construction.
stone-built cult chapels were constructed in front of
mastabas of the reign of Khufu. The wish
number
very large, for example numbers of
is
Dynasty onwards, the
continued to be a
lists
typology of mastabas of the
5th and 6th Dynasties because the
developed in the 3rd Dynasty. From the 3rd and early 4th cult area often
offering
and scenes of offering.
tomb
Gradually, large
grew and merged
'towns'
around the pyramids, with tombs lined up
form
'streets'. Similarly, in
in long
rows to
the course of the 6th Dynasty,
brick enclosures developed around the outside of
from
mastabas; within these walls numerous small tombs with
the statue cult in royal complexes (cult temple). 'Late'
chapels appeared, the whole forming something like a
chambers (serdabs). This concept
statue
transitional forms are
Khufu (Hemiunu).
found
in Giza
up
differed
to the reign of
introduction of serdabs,
came
and some mastabas
the transition to stone-built
with a casing of stone. Particularly extravagant complexes
Helwan
are elaborately niched (Senwosretankh at El-Lisht,
to the east of the
pyramid of
from the 2nd-3rd Dynasty. Niching had
disappeared or become confined to the palace-facade
door
false
in the offering chapel.
walls appears mostly rough
are
Meidum). and 5th
a gradual transformation of
dwelling house, with a gate hall, pillared court
and
tions.
Some
interesting forms appear to
became similar to that of a
hall,
entrance
several cult
hall,
chambers
pillared for the
Clarence
(Philadelphia 1924); Reisner, Development; George A. Reisner, history of the Egyptian mastaba,
Iff.;
A. Badawy,
tomb la
in Egypt, in:
tombe
JNES
15(1957) 148-165;
J.
la
Brinks, Mastaba,
1974-94);
friihzeitlichen
Manuel II 251-294;
The
MIFAO 66
I,
Junker, Giza
I
the mastaba-
15 (1956) 180-183; J.-Ph.Lauer, Evolution de
royale egyptienne jusqu'a
W.
Melanges Maspero
The ideology of the superstructure of
Dunham, W.K. Simpson and
shape of boats (Kagemni, Ptahshepses) and
in:
(Cairo 1935-38) 579-584; Vandier,
magazine. The nucleus of some large tombs contained in the
Kingdom.
The Minor Cemetery at Giza
Fisher,
master of the tomb and his family, each with an attendant
rooms
cult
be transitional
Texts in the tradition of pyramids of the Old Bibliography:
Having more rooms inside the mastaba (especially
the structure of the core, which
door plus
the dead (Ihy and Hetep, Inpy). Some crypts bear Pyramid
statues in the 4th
Saqqara) brought about
false
and stepped. There
Dynasties was accompanied by greater numbers of
at
Dahshur), with a
at
niche on the east side or surrounded by bands of inscrip-
between the concept of a mastaba and that of temples of
the 4th Dynasty (Giza, Saqqara,
serdabs.
Khnumhotep
The casing of the outside
noticeable local variations in structure from as early as in
The increasing use of
in the 12th
Dynasty, the structure generally consisting of a brick core
mastabas. The earliest monumental examples are
Teti dating
The construction of mastabas resumed
and the
the establishment of cult places for the deceased
287. H. 6
communal tomb.
In the 4th Dynasty, coinciding with
Kaiser,
Zu
pyramide a degres, in:
Helck, LA
K. Weeks, Giza
Entwicklung
III
in:
MDAIK
1214-1231;D.
Mastabas I-V (Boston
und Vorformen
Graber mit reichgegliederter Oberbaufassade,
der in:
'stairways to heaven' built into the masonry, leading to a
Melanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar (Cairo 1985) 25-38; Muller,
their function is unknown (Kagemni, Ankhmahor and Neferseshemre, all at Saqqara). Large tombs are found, some with more than 30 rooms, for example Giza mastaba 2370, Rawer, Ptahshepses, Ty, Mereruka and Ptahhotep/Akhtihotep. Burial places
Monumentalarchitektur 17-21; Nadine Cherpion, Mastabas
dead end;
initially
consisted of a deep shaft approached from the roof
Hypogees d'Ancienne Empire. Le probleme de 1989);
P.
Janosi,
The Tombs
la
et
dotation (Brussels
ofOfficials'in Egyptian Art in the Age of the
Pyramids, Exhibition Catalogue (New York 1999) 27-39; Schatten der Pyramiden - Die Mastabas in Abusir,
in:
P.
Janosi,
Im
Barta, Abusir
2000445-466.
of the mastaba and orientated as far as possible towards the place for offerings. into
The
shaft
opens towards the west
Mastabat el-Fara'un, see Shepseskaf
an undecorated chamber with a plain sarcophagus,
often
monumental
in the west wall.
rectangular
in scale in the larger
From
chamber
tombs, in a recess
the early 6th Dynasty the longish is
entered from the north, the
Mat, see also
woven timber
construction
Mats of a network of materials have been used since prehistoric times in the
manufacture of huts and enclosures.
Measuring Such structures continue
to survive in
some forms of
stone building (Djoser) as well as in hieroglyphic
known
distance to the height,
141
Egyptian as
in ancient
seqed
(Fig., C).
representations of early cult structures (Per-nu, Per-
palms
to a height of 7
wer). Fitted in larger buildings, always after five or six
while the ratio of 5:7 palms gave an angle of 54°. The way
layers of bricks, they served to prevent
dry cracking.
An
According
an
to this,
offset distance of 7
palms was equal
an angle of 45°,
to
the angle was produced in construction
is
known
only
unusual application was as bundles of loam-coated mats
from the evidence of one or two
creating the shape of the cavetto cornice (Late Period
plastered corners of a wall in the foundation pit of
tomb
mastaba 17
in the lower Assasif ).
Bibliography: Badawy, Dessin architectural 6-23;
Uvo
Hohe Tor von Medinet Habu (Leipzig 1910), Grabbauten
Holscher, Das 24;
Fig.
Eigner,
at
On
much
the edge of the desert south of
Dahshur
there the
remains of two pyramids belonging to two unknown rulers of the 13th Dynasty.
They have been ascribed
Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu, but this.
there
is
no basis
to
for
The
lid
of the sarcophagus was intended to be lowered
using sand channels. The smaller southern pyramid was
intended to measure 100 x 100 cubits.
too was
It
unfinished but appears to have been used, as
it
was
later
pyramid
Mazghuneh (London III
Khufu pyramid
to the
is
marked out
Levelling
c)
'square
level',
Ages, consisting of right-angled triangle with a
The
line (Fig., B).
m; the deviation
cm
1
m between the north and south sides of
Khufu pyramid
is
2 cm. Several examples have been
zontal height lines at intervals of one cubit each, aiding
Helck,
in:
the
upward projection of height
lines (Fig., F). To facilitate
number
Egypt and belong
role
to its earliest
of 'Menes' at
Naqada was
were measured using measuring rods of
There are also some examples that are two
cubits in length.
measuring of whether
this
The use of measuring cords
fields
is
attested to, but
would have been
it
is
in the
doubtful
sufficiently accurate for
stone construction work. Points of
measurement were
of
also
indicated by series of limestone slabs (on the causeway
and
in the forecourt of the
Mentuhotep temple, and
the corridor of the pyramid of Senwosret
The method of constructing
d)
known, but
measurement.
cubit.
measured (control notes). Height was
cubits
already constructed using the cubit as the unit of
one
over a
in basal height over the
LA
Masghuna,
Measuring, see also orientation Numbers and measurements played an outstanding
a) Distances
plumb
obtained were astonishingly
results
accurate, with an error factor of only +/-
distance of 47
as a
be used into the Middle
to
found of unfinished walls of the Old Kingdom with hori-
1912); W.K. Simpson,
mastaba
in lines
was performed with a device known
which continued
orientation, each line was marked with the
achievements. The
The
The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and
1196; Stadelmann.Pyram/den 247-248.
in the culture of ancient
it.
scratched on at the corners.
the al.,
was transferred
stepwise receding position of blocks in a secondary
distance of 230
et
the slope
pyramid of Meroe the outline of the slope of
temporary
Bibliography: W.M.F. Petrie
How
not known. Similarly, in the case of a
is
enclosed within a curved wall and furnished with a cult chapel.
were marked with horizontal
pyramid was marked onto a wall opposite
the
Only the subterranean parts of the larger northern
pyramid were completed, but even these were not used.
inner, white
distances measured in cubits, the
in that system.
onto the wall
Mazghuna
The
inclining angle of the foundation (1:4) displayed as a
drawing
79.
Meidum
at
spaced
lines
cases.
b2
=
c2 )
Using
it is
this,
it
right angles
not
is
possible that Pythagoras' theorem (a 2
was known even
in
I).
+
as early as the time of Djoser.
would have been easy
angled triangles in the proportions
to construct right-
3:4:5.
wooden
An
alternative
set-square on
method would have been
to use a
a straight line with
outside corner placed at the
its
intersection with the perpendicular. Measuring
would be
indicated by crosses scratched on stone slabs. Circular
repeated by turning over the set- square, in order to
holes chiselled into the bedrock around larger buildings
correct
may have
perpendicular line could be constructed on a straight line
served as sockets for
wooden marker
poles.
b) Determining the batter of the exterior sloping walls of mastabas
was very important from
as early as
by
earlier
letting a
across
it
inaccuracies
measured piece of
from both ends
Bibliography: Clark,
pyramids. From the Rhind Papyrus, a mathematical
LV 115; G. Goyon, Le grand
handbook, as well from checking the dimensions of
BIFAO 76 ( 1976) 289-300;
it is
clear that the angle of slope
was
defined and constructed by the ratio of the offset
des
string
A).
mark
Finally,
a
out a curve
(Fig., D).
AEM 62-67; W. Schenkel, Mefischnur, in: Helck, LA
the 1st Dynasty and later in the construction of the
ancient buildings,
(Fig.,
circle d'or
J.-Ph. Lauer,
monuments de Tancien
empire,
in:
du temple d'Osymandas,
Le triangle sacre dans
in:
les
plans
BIFAO 77 (1977) 55-78;
Josef
Dorner, Die Absteckung und astronomische Orientierung agyptischer
142
Medamud
I3_ base
cord
line
„^"H cord
~
1
..
1
.'
0/7,
/
7/7
X
Measuring. A: construction of a right angle using a wooden
an angle of slope (7 or 10 palms
vertical rise
of a wall with a measuring rod and
plumb
by
1
set square; B: levelling
line; F; levelling
marks with heights above the
Pyramiden, Dissertation (Innsbruck 1981); Arnold, Building 10-14;
M. Isler, The Merkhet, in:
gnomon
in
Varia Aegyptiaca 7
Egyptian antiquity,
in:
JARCE 28
(
with a right angle and a plumb
line; C:
Egyptian method of expressing
cubit horizontal offset); D: construction of a right angle by drawing arcs; E: determination of the batter
1991 ) 53-67;
M. Isler, The
(1991) 155-185.
horizontal on the core
masonry of a corner of wall
primitive double shrine dating from either the Old
Kingdom
or the First Intermediate Period and were
surrounded by a trapezoidal brick enclosure with two pylons. Two winding corridors inside lead to subterranean
Medamud
chambers, which were indicated on the surface by shallow
The ruins of the Month temple
at
Madu,
5
km
north-east
mounds surrounded by gardens
of trees. Replacing this
of Karnak, include extremely important remains of earlier
'primitive temple', Senwosret
temples which
measuring 60 x 100 m, made of brick but with columns
illustrate the
development of an Egyptian
sanctuary over time. The deepest remains belong to a
and gateways of limestone.
It
III
erected a building
has been possible to erect
— Medinet Habu
New Kingdom
143
enclosure wall
Senwosret
III
gateway
llllHJ-
1
"
m
200
250
—I Plan of the
Month
precinct at
one gateway each
Open
Air
at the
Museum
Medamud, showing
Egyptian
construction phases (see text)
Museum at Cairo and the
Karnak using re-used blocks
at
surviving from the Middle Kingdom.
A
wall 5.5
m
thick
enclosed a cult building with royal statue pillars, magazines, six
new
structure
houses, as well as grain stores.
priests'
was erected
in the reign of
Thutmosis
A
III
Medinet The
el
Faiyum
of the temple of Sobek at Crocodilopolis
site
(Arsinoe). This temple
is
one of the most important,
least satisfactorily studied, in Egypt. In 1888, the
of a 250 x 350
m
yet
remains
Ptolemaic sanctuary with a granite
gateway of Amenemhat
III
was discovered underneath
a
later
mound of ruins, 25 m high and spread over an area of 1200
replaced in the Ptolemaic period by a building measuring
x 1700 m. Lying further south were the shafts of 16 granite
21 x 32 m. In front of the facade, Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
papyrus columns, 7.2
above the spot of the western
set
up two rows of
monumental double
11
mound and was
columns and
altar
II
a forecourt with a
and double rows of eolumns. An
avenue of sphinxes led from the main gate
to a
preserved sacred lake. Next to this
lie
site
platform
with two obelisks. In the south-west corner there
is
has
Petrie,
the remains of a
Roque, Rapport sur
la
II
L.
de
in:
Amenemhat
and Ramesses
now been demolished and built
VI.
The
over.
Book
1,
38;
W.M.
Flinders
Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinoe (London 1889) 56-59, Plate
Habachi, Une 'vaste
(Fayoum),
les fouilles
high, originally of
Bibliography: Strabo, Geographica XVII,
a well-
destroyed temple of the early Ptolemaic period. Bibliography: Bisson de
m
but re-inscribed by Ramesses
III
Helck,
in:
L4
ASAE
III
salle'
d'Amenemhat
37 (1937) 85-95;
F.
III
a
29;
Kiman-Fares
Gomaa, Medinet el-Fajjum,
1254-1255.
Midamoud, 1925-26, 1927-28, 1 929-32, Institut francais d'archeologie orientale (Cairo 1926-33); C.
Robichon and A.
Varille, Description
sommaire de temple primitif de Medamoud (Cairo 1940);
Medamud, 146-147.
in:
Helck,
LA
III
1252-1253; Aufrere,
L'
F.
Gomaa,
egypte restituee
Medinet Habu 1.
18th Dynasty temple
An important religious sanctuary whose focus is the primeval Amun, situated at the southern boundary of the
Medinet Habu
144
Plan of temple of Ramesses
Theban
necropolis.
primeval
Amun
It
III at
Medinet Habu
was believed
to
Kematef, where
be the tomb of the
Amun
of
Karnak
hypostyle
hall,
behind which are chambers
for guest
gods, an offering chamber and the sanctuary for the
regenerated himself once every 10 days. Over a small
barque of Amun. Behind
building of the 11th Dynasty, a six-room temple was
(perhaps for the mysteries of Amun-Re). To the south of
constructed, at the front of which stood a barque
the central axis are the treasuries, a place for the cult of
sanctuary with a colonnade (area 13 x 29 m) of
Month and
Hatshepsut. During the construction of the large temple
which take the form of an
of Ramesses
III
(see 2.), the small temple
was enclosed
within the surrounding wall. This complex was enlarged in the
Nubian period with
two
a corridor consisting of
rows of eight columns and a pylon
at
the front.
A further
this lie
some hidden rooms
rooms of Ramesses
the mortuary cult
Osiris shrine.
On
north side were chapels for the king, Ptah, other gods, a slaughter court for the cult of the
sun with stairs
the Divine Ennead.
to the roof,
cult,
III.
the opposite,
Amun
and
a shrine to the
and a sanctuary
The decoration of
this
temple
for is
The
pylon was added under Ptolemy VIII and Ptolemy XI
impressive, with important remains of colour.
Neos Dionysos and a colonnade erected
enclosure wall encompasses store houses, barracks with
in front of the
m
Nubian pylon. Construction of a pronaos, 42
wide,
stables for horses, offices, wells, small
with a large forecourt, was begun in the reign of Antonius
The temple has been studied
Pius but was never completed.
is
Bibliography: Holscher, Medinet in:
2.
Halck.LA
III
Habu
II;
Stadelmann, Medinet Habu,
Temple of Ramesses
ponds and gardens.
an exemplary fashion and
of great significance for the history of construction. Bibliography: Holscher, Medinet Habu
Habu, in: Helck, LA
1255-1271; Auhere, L'Egypte restituee 183-184.
in
III
I, III,
V; R.
Stadelmann, Medinet
1 255- 1 27 1 Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 1 71 - 1 83. ;
III
The well-preserved 'house of millions of years' of Ramesses
III
was
originally
surrounded by a small
enclosure with a stone pylon at the front.
It
was
later
enlarged by the addition of an outer enclosure wall, 18 high, measuring 205 x 315 fortress-like appearance.
m, which gave
A monumental platform on
bank of the canal was followed by
window of appearances opens
the
onto the
m
High
first
the
Gate.
A
court of the
temple from the cult palace on the southern
side.
The
main temple building is 150 m long, and its plan is largely a copy of the Ramesseum. Two forecourts, decorated with statue pillars of the king (pillar,
r
the sanctuary a
Fig.), are
followed by a
Reconstruction of the tomb chapel of Amenirdis in the forecourt of
Ramesses
Ill's
temple
at
Medinet Habu
(after U. Holscher) (see text)
'
Meidum Tomb
3.
and Amenemhat IV and has three
chapels of the 'divine consorts'
In the safety of the forecourt of the temple of III
Ramesses
stand the tomb chapels of the 'divine consorts'
cult
145
parallel shrines for the
images, which give onto a shared offering chamber
(multiple shrines,
In front there
Fig., C).
an ante-
is
and
chamber with two papyrus columns decorated with
Ankhnesneferibre (22nd-26th Dynasties). The super-
flower-bud capitals, and protruding antae (multiple
Shepenwepet
structure
I,
Amenirdis, Nitokris, Shepenwepet
in the
is
form of
a
II
temple with a pylon, a
small pillared courtyard and a cult
chamber
set inside a
rectangular space; the sarcophagus chambers are set slightly
below floor
Shepenwepet
I
(c.
level.
The burial chamber of
750 BC) and the
cult
chamber of
shrine,
Fig.,
the temple enclosure are a group of seven private
III
to
temple
tombs.
Madinet Madi,
Naumann, Der tempel des
MDAIK 8
22nd-26th Dynasties
Ptolemaic period,
the
Bibliography: A. Vogliano, Rapporto preliminare della IVa di scavo a
Amenirdis both have true stone vaults. To the west of
chapels, modified in the
In
C).
Habu V 17-30;
Grab im Tempelhof, der Typus des Konigsgrabes
MDAM27
R. Stadelmann, in
was
S.
campagna
38 (1938) 533-549; Rudolf
Mittleren Reiches in Medinet Madi,
(1939) 185-189; E. Bresciani, Medinet Madi,
1271-1273;
Studies
ASAE
in:
in:
Donadini, Le pietre di Madinet Madi,
and Other Essays Presented
to I.E.S.
Helck,
in:
in:
LA
Pyramid
Edwards (London 1988)
61-67. Reconstruction: Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee
Bibliography: Holscher, Medinet
it
incorporated in a larger complex.
III
201.
Das
der Spatzeit,
in:
(1971) 111-123.
Reconstruction of the Ermuthis-Isis temple of
Amenemhat
III
at
Medinet Madi
Meidum The
site
of a step
mastaba and an attendant
royal
cemetery from the period of the transition from the 3rd to the 4th
Dynasties, with examples of early stone
constructions of outstanding significance for the history
of construction. The
initial
mastaba had seven steps (El);
before completion this had been enlarged to eight steps (E2), the length at the base being 120.75
and angle of slope
75°.
above ground in the centre of the north steep corridor led
ground Columns
in the north-west corner of the first court,
Ramesses
III at
temple of
down
to a small
The roof of
known corbelled
vault.
this
side,
chamber erected
chamber
From year 30
m
from which a
is
at
the earliest
to year
34 of the
reign of Sneferu, due to the influence of solar concepts
Medinet Habu
this
Medinet Madi
rectangular royal precinct, with
orientation,
The ruins of an important Ptolemaic town, 35 west of Medinet el-Faiyum. There
level.
m, height 85 m,
The entrance was located 16
is
km south-
a well-preserved
was converted
to
dominated by step mastaba E2
its
north- south
an east-facing complex
pyramid m, angle of slope 51°51
rebuilt as a true
(E3), with a base length of 144.32
temple dedicated to Ermuthis-Isis (Renenutet.Termuthis)
and height of 92 m. A causeway
and Sobek of Narmouthis. The core of the temple, which
undiscovered valley temple up to a small cult complex
measures 8.5 x 10.7 m, was erected bv Amenemhat
the foot of
III
led
from an as yet
pyramid E3, consisting of an
at
offering table
146
Meidum mastaba
I
Section through the pyramid of
17
Meidum, showing construction phases
M
l
-M3 and the 'ring bands'
flanked by two stelae at the back of a small stone building.
To the north and south of the pyramid are remains of two
monumental secondary tombs;
their
A
site is
re-used block found at the
known kheker
earliest
frieze.
purpose
unknown.
Important remains of
building ramps have been discovered theory that the outer casing
is
decorated with the
may
at
the
site.
The
have collapsed during
construction has not proved correct.
To the north of the pyramid are some important brick mastabas of the 4th Dynasty (Meidum mastaba 17,
Nefermaat and Atet, and Rehotep and Bibliography:
W.M.
Flinders Pelrk,
Flinders Petrie,
Medum and Memphis (London
Entstehung der Pyramide; Alan Rowe,
(Museum
of Pennsylvania) 22 (\93\);
du pretendu desastre de 76;
D.
la
in:
in:
Museum
The
Journal
Helck,
in:
CdE
51 (1976)
LA IV 9-13; Stadelmann,
Ali El-Khouli et
(Warminster 1992).
4th Dynasty at base,
made of Some
of quarry stones and packed with rubble.
interesting cult area
W.M.
MRA III; J.-Ph.Lauer,A propos
Meidum mastaba 17 An important royal mastaba of the early Meidum, measuring 52 x 105 m at the mandes
1892);
1910) l-9;Borchardt,
pyramide de Meidoum,
Wildung, Meidum,
Pyramiden 81-87;
Nefret).
Medum (London
measuring marks have been discovered. The
was unusually wide, measuring
13. 5
m across, but
Burial
chamber of mastaba
17 at
Meidum
Memphis it
now
unfortunately no longer exists. The owner
unknown) died
(name
complex had not been
his
built,
classical source
interment in the
roof.
A
recess in the magnificent burial
m)
door frames this
is
chamber
(ceiling
rounded; the reason
46,
815-816
Memnon, in
BIFA064 (1966) 203-212.
for
Petrie,
Medum (London
Meidum and Memphis (London
The
1892) 11-14;
most
and
largest
traditionally
1910) 13-18.
important
founded by Menes, and
Lower Egyptian nome. For many
years,
it
was
A necropolis of rock tombs in Middle Egypt. The earliest
supplanted by Alexandria. In antiquity
tomb here
banks of the
dates from the 6th Dynasty and belongs to
and
Niankhpepy Sebekhotep. Later tombs, from the 12th Dynasty, represent a distinctive local
style,
with the
lent to the cult target
be seen
136-142; D. Kessler, Meir,
seat of the
was
It it
lay
later
on the
but the course of the river has changed
km
away. Apart from
some nondescript
in the
landscape of koms between Badrashein and
now
is
largely built over.
Exploration Society has recently begun
The Egypt systematic
exploration of an area measuring 1.375 x 2.5 km. The city
Bibliography: Blackman, The Rock Tombs of Meir, 6 Vols (London II
4
Mitrahina, which
by a raised
central aisle through the cult chamber.
1914-53); Badaway, Architecture
Nile,
now
is
Egypt,
remains of temples, only a few traces of structures are to
inclusion of a shrine-like structure in front of the statue is
it
in
city
capital of the first
Egyptian administration and garrisons.
Prominence
I,
JEA 47 (1961) 91-99
in:
Meir
niche.
main
Memphis, see also Merenptah, Ptah
W.M. Flinders
Flinders Petrie,
Memnon,
G. Haeny, L'origine des traditions thebaines concernant
occupied by a granite sarcophagus. The
in the corridors are
ancient misinterpretation. The
47
Strabo's Geography.
A.H. Gardiner, The Egyptian
unknown.
Bibliography:
W.M.
is
is
Bibliography: Strabo, Geographica VIII, 123; XVII
unfinished burial chamber was effected through the
height 5
may be an
Aurora,
early and, as the entrance to the burial
1
I
was separated
in:
into different sections, containing a royal
fortification of the Late Period
Helck,L4 IV 14-19.
(palace of Apries) in the
north, the temple of Ptah in the centre, the palace of
Memnoneion
Merenptah
name
Gardiner and others assumed that the Greek
Memnon
III,
and
to the pair of colossal statues at
Memnoneion was
it
was therefore given
east, at the
Thebes; and the term
the
applied to the associated mortuary
memorial temple', designating
type (including the temple of Sety derivation from the
Icolossi of
name
all I
of the hero
at
Rabia, there
research. There
|i
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
a close connection with
Serapeum). al.,
15,
Memphis, 6
Vols, British
17-18, 20, 23, 26 (London
Rudolf Anthes, Mit Rahineh 1956 (Philadelphia 1965);
••• •••
1
is
1908-13); Rudolf Anthes, Mit Rahineh 1955 (Philadelphia 1959);
of
• ••I 1
and, further to the
king. Living areas are attested to but have as yet little
Memnon 1
II
a temple to Hathor built by
School of Archaeology in Egypt, Vols
Abydos). The
li
is
Bibliography: W. M. Flinders Petrie et
buildings of this
Memnon, son
Kom
in the east.
precinct of Ptah contains a
the nearby necropolis (Saqqara,
noneion was a vulgarisation of basileion mnemoneion, 'royal
same
received
Mem-
temple of the king. Haeny argues, however, that
and the harbour
small statue temple of Ramesses
derived from the Egyptian Neb-maat-Re, the
prenomen of Amenhotep
in the south-east
The south-west corner of the
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
)
1
1
1
1
1
1
• •• • ••I
1
1
CM.
Zivie,
(•••• ,
sea<„„-;„,i
•••» ••••
•••
!••••
main temple building
1
colossi il
100
Reconstruction of the plan of the
Memnoneion
(after H. Ricke)
200
300
Mendes
148
Memphis,
in:
Helck,
LA IV 24-41; Dorothy J.Thompson, Memphis
remains of some kings' tombs of the 29th Dynasty
under the Ptolemies (Princeton 1988). Annual reports of the British
(Nepherites
excavations, from
sacred lake
JEA 69 (1983) onwards: K.A. Kitchen, Towards
reconstruction of Ramesside Memphis,
in:
Fragments of a Shattered
Visage (Memphis, Tenn. 1991) 87-104; Jaromir Malek,
Memphis, islands at
in:
The temples of
Quirke, Temple 90-101; D. Jeffreys, House, palace and
Memphis, in:
Memphis: the
a
Bietak,
Haus und Palast 287-294;
G.T. Martin,
status of a residence city in the Eighteenth Dynasty, in:
Bdrta, Abusir 2000, 99-120.
which were destroyed by the Persians.
I),
lies to
some remains of a harbour complex.
there are also
Bibliography: Description
MDAIK in:
ARCE 6
Mendes
LA
II
An
extensive
mound
ancient double city of
Amdid and
covered with ruins marks the
Mendes and Thmuis (Timai
el-Rub'a), capital of the
Tell
Mendes 1965 and
Wenke and
R.J.
D.J.
from Mendes and
Kom
Excavations
Helck,
in:
Kingdom
Brewer, The archaic Old
House
el-Hisn, in: Bietak,
Palace, 265-285; D. Redford, Report
1966,
Pierre Mackay,
(Warminster 1976); H. de Meulenaere, Mendes,
IV 43-45;
and
al.,
Herman de Meulenaere and
(1967) 5-51;
Delta: the evidence
Mendes
V 29; A. Scharff, Ein Besuch von Mendes, in:
(1930) 130-134; D. Hanssen et
1
A
the south-east outside the enclosure;
on the 9th Season of
el-Rub'a/Mendes, in: ASA£ 75 (1999-2000) 17-21.
at Tell
el-
16th Lower
'Menes',
tomb
of (Naqada)
Egyptian nome. There are the remains of an Old Kingdom
Famous mastaba near Naqada, measuring 26.5 x 53.4 m,
settlement and a necropolis (mastaba). The temple
which
precinct of the
ram-god Banebdjedet
at Tell el-Rub'a,
probably that of Queen Neithhotep (reign of
is
Horus Aha). The core structure, which probably rose
measuring 400 x 700 m, was recorded by the Arab
steeply
geographer Subh
contained
up
to the roof.
120
m) was
the north.
el- A'sha,
in the
1
5th century AD, as intact
The main temple building (measuring 70 x
orientated north-south with an entrance at
One
of the four granite naoi, 8
m
high,
dedicated to Re, Geb, Shu and Osiris, has survived and stands in what was probably the hypaetral sanctuary of the temple. Foundation pits of the 18th Dynasty granite blocks bearing the cartouches of
Merenptah hint
at
and
a granite
II
Some papyrus
exterior.
system and
had a smooth this
exterior
were 16
tomb
and
with a
cells
The niches were constructed on
made
together with
level,
rooms. Around
a cubit
of particularly small bricks. This, S 3357 of the
same
period,
is
the
preserved specimen of a niched mastaba.
earliest
Supposedly developed from the Lower Egyptian (Butic) tradition of high officials' free-standing
tombs with
and
above-ground funerary chambers,
to
capitals of red
Hathor capital (now in the Egyptian
Museum
in Cairo)
one
At the south-east corner of the precinct are the
side.
niched
five
and
the existence of predecessors to
Amasis' construction. granite
Ramesses
from ground
belonged to a birth house situated to
out-of-place in
it
seems
be rather
Upper Egypt.
Bibliography: L. Borchardt, Das Grab des Menes,
ZAS
in:
36 (1898)
87-105; Spencer, Brick Architecture 15-16; W. Helck, Neqada, Helck,
LA IV 344-346; W.
Helck, Neith-hotep,
in:
Helck,
in:
LA IV
394-395; W. Kaiser, Zu Entwicklung und Vorformen der fruhzeitlichen
111 #
B
! ///,//
Plan of the 'tomb of Menes' at Naqada (after G.A. Reisner)
Graber mit reich gegliederter Oberbaufassade,
Eddin Mokhtar
II
in:
Melanges Gamal
(Cairo 1985) 25-38.
Menkaure (Mykerinos), pyramid of The pyramid of Menkaure,
called 'Divine
is
the
Pyramid
of Menkaure', stands at Giza. Construction expenditure Reconstruction of the sanctuary of the temple
at
Mendes
for this
pyramid was considerably
less
than for
its
Mentuhotep, temple of (Deir el-Bahari) predecessors, the emphasis in this case being on the cult facilities (a
tendency also observed
Our understanding of
complex
this
5-6th Dynasty).
in the
hindered by the
is
repeated re-designs which took place in the lifetime of the
king and the necessarily hasty completion length of the sides
at his death.
The
105 m, with the angle of slope 51-52°
is
and height 65-66 m. The nucleus has been shown
have
to
side,
behind staggered rows of
room,
its
the king
pillars, is
the
149
main
cult
shape again elongated, with a statue group of
and Queen Khamerernebty.
Bibliography:
Mycerinus
Pyramids 104-120; George A. Reisner,
Petrie,
(Cambridge, Mass.
1931);
MRA
reconstruction of the triads of King Mycerinos,
V; in:
W. Wood,
A
JEA 60 (1974)
82-93; Edwards, Pyramids 147-155; Stadelmann, Pyramiden
been a stepped structure with an outer casing up to the
141-150; Stadelmann, Pyramiden von Giza 191-205; Lehner,
16th course of granite (bossed blocks), the upper portion
Complete Pyramids 134-137.
being limestone. The construction of the inside chambers has a complicated history: a corridor serving as entrance or construction area which led
was
built
was
later replaced
in progress;
it
lower
The antechamber
4.87
down
to the
antechamber
from above while the erection of the pyramid was
level.
m high, with a
flat,
by the addition of
with an entranceway
itself,
3.83 x 14.20
unlined ceiling, was
later
m
at a
and
enlarged
sarcophagus chamber (2.62 x
a
m)
6.59-6.62 m, height 3.43
lower
at a
was faced with granite and roofed with
level.
The
latter
a false granite
vault of hollowed out relieving slabs (ceiling construction,
From here Howard Vyse removed
Fig.).
niched granite sarcophagus (palace, the boat carrying
sank on
it
Fig., C), lost
way from Malta
its
a
when to
Pyramid of Menkaure
at Giza,
from the east
Cartagena in 1888. From the lower complex, a side- room
branches off to one side with
six
deep recesses
(possibly forerunners of serdabs).
corridor has the niching.
On
first
The
in the walls
later
entrance
example of a corridor chamber with
the south side of this
pyramid
are three
secondary pyramids, the two to the west being queens'
tombs, possibly
shape of stepped structures. The
in the
eastern one, a 'true' cult
pyramid with
and
larger,
a cult building,
was
is
chamber
with granite casing.
The pyramid temple on the pyramid
a burial
east side of the
is
local limestone, the lower part
cased with granite, the top with limestone.
On
the death
of the king, the final part was completed in brick
some pillared
the Nile at Thebes,
is
lies
on the West Bank of
important as evidence of the Upper
Egyptian building style and also of the transition from the Old
Kingdom pyramid temple
millions of years' of the
Kingdom called,
main
aligned with the pyramid temple of Khufu.
The nuclear masonry
Mentuhotep, temple of (Deir el-Bahari) This king's cult temple, which
1200
'houses of Like
its
Old
predecessors, the Akh-sut, as the complex was
had
m
to the
New Kingdom.
a valley
in length
temple and a causeway. The
and 46
m
latter is
wide, and led to a forecourt
with a temple garden and statues of the king. The building was laid out as a terraced temple, having an
open
front with pillared halls.
and
halls planned to be erected in the
courtyard were instead replaced by niched walls. The elongation of the
main
have been intended
to
cult
room
suggests that
it
may
house a barque (possibly reflecting
the concept of the king travelling in the barque of the sun). As a precursor to a later change in cultic practices, a
mortuary offering chapel with a cruciform
was erected against the pyramid
cult area
in the courtyard. Also,
the valley temple was only completed in brick. traditional pillared halls
The
around the courtyard were
replaced by walls decorated with niching. The eight chapels on the side by the entrance contained royal statue
groups, perhaps representing the eternal unification of
View over the western part of the temple of Mentuhotep
the king with the gods of Egypt. Situated along the west
Bahari;
left
foreground, a corner of the central core
at
Deir
el
-
:
Merenptah, palace of (Memphis)
150
hypostyte
-ooooooooooo oooooooooooooo ooooooooooo
Cto _^o ooo ~pD O T
hall
oooooooooo oooooooo 1
1
—
tomb —-
QOOOC O O O O O
n no
juwxrx>
cft
V
oocooooooo
sanctuary of Amun
ooo ooo ooo
i
middle court
-rrrriSlQr\.Q.i!i.a_n. o~o~r\a 0.-C- o. Olc.
'
-king's
I QO O
001 r
o o o o o o o
o
"
central core
"
I
:
a
a
a
:
:
pc
o o o o o o c
-
_
:
TTo o"6"
—
.
:
-
:
ooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooo oo ooooooooo oooo
Plan and reconstructed east-west section of the front part of the temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el-Bahari
The plan was divided
The
in two.
was
front part
dedicated to Month- Re and consisted of a core building, 11
m
on
high, set
a terrace (perhaps conceived as a
primeval mound). The suggestion
surmounted by architectural
a
that this building
was
pyramid must be rejected
for
and other reasons. The core building was
completely surrounded by an ambulatory with octagonal
sandstone
pillars.
The
rear section of the sanctuary
served the cult of the deified king.
sheer
containing eight rows of ten
pillars,
Subsequently a sanctuary of
adding the cult of
It
was carved
cult of
Amun
hall,
with a statue chapel.
Amun
was
built into
it,
of Karnak to the original joint
Mentuhotep and Month-Re, which changed the
complex
Jies
mountain and consists of
is
m
a granite
shrine-shaped alabaster chapel. of the king
150
A deep
deep inside the
chamber with
a
secondary tomb
situated in the lower courtyard in the
'Bab el-Hosan' in front of the temple; this was where the well-known black seated statue of the king,
the Egyptian
Museum
at
Cairo,
and was probably an Osiris tomb
for
Bibliography: Edouard Naville, The Xlth Dynasty Temple at Deir el-Bahari, 3 Vols
(London 1907, 1910, 1913); Dieter Arnold, Der
Tempel des Konigs Mentuhotep von Deir el-Bahari, 3 Vols (Mainz 1974, 1974, 1981); Dieter Arnold, The Temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el-Bahari,
(New
York, 1979);
D Arnold,
Deir el-Bahari
II, in:
Helck,
LAI 1011-1017.
Merenptah, palace of (Memphis) The important remains of the Merenptah
at
Memphis (Kom
cult
palace
now
in
was buried beside
(Fig.,
A) of
Qala'a) were excavated
between 1914 and 1920, but have been inadequately published.
A
reception hall situated below a pylon was
followed by a columned court (27 x 58
into a true 'house of millions of years'.
The tomb of the king
coffin,
the king.
into the
with a courtyard and a pillared
cliffs,
an empty
m
).
A colonnade
two storeys high beside the entrance may have formed something
like a
balcony of appearances (window of
appearances). At the rear of the courtyard there a hall of
Beyond
appearances with two rows of
this lay the
six
is
columns.
throne room with a magnificently
decorated throne podium, found completely preserved (a
model of the room
is
in the University
Museum,
Mereruka, tomb of Philadelphia). This
followed by the living quarters,
is
Mereruka, tomb of
including a
The mastaba,
are
the 6th Dynasty (Teti),
bedroom and bathroom. Floors and columns made of limestone. The frame of the 7 m high
door, leading to the hall of appearances, as well as
were inlaid with faience and gold
pillars,
plaster
on the walls was also
richly painted
its
The
leaf.
and decorated
Bibliography: C.S. Fisher,
Museum Journal D.G. Jeffreys,
The Eckley
B.
Cox
Jr.
Expedition,
The
in:
(Philadelphia) 8 (1917) 21 1-227; 15 (1924) 92-100;
Malek and H.S. Smith, Memphis 1984,
J.
JEA 72
in:
(1986) 10-13; D. O'Connor, Mirror of the Cosmos: The Palace of
Merenptah,
Fragments of a Shattered Visage (Memphis, Tenn.
in:
at
Saqqara, of the vizier Mereruka, of
measuring 25 x 42.5
is
one of the
and
son
his
(Fig.,
An
interesting feature
six-pillared hall.
main
4.2 x 10
In
its
cult
m, which
A
shaft, 16
m
is
is
the figure of
cult recess in the
deep, leads from one of
chambers down
to the burial
chamber,
completely covered with paintings.
western recess, decorated with niching,
immense sarcophagus (measuring
1993) 167-197.
A), his wife (Fig., B)
they occupy the entire space inside
(Fig., C);
Mereruka stepping forward out of the the two
largest in Egypt,
m (915 sq m). Inside are 32 completely
decorated rooms for Mereruka
the mastaba core.
with inlaid faience and gold.
151
is
the
2 x 3.4 x 4.2 m),
equipped with an approach ramp.
Merenptah, temple of (Thebes)
Bibliography: Prentice Duell, The Mastaba of Mereruka, 2 Vols
The 'house of millions of years' of Merenptah the West is
Bank
at
III
on
Thebes. In the history of architecture,
the link between the
Ramesses
lies
Ramesseum and
Medinet Habu.
at
It
(Chicago 1938).
it
the temple of
two
consists of
courtyards, two hypostyle halls, the holy-of-holies and a
sun
cult building.
the
first
The
courtyard.
palace
cult
A
directly attached to
is
number of beautifully temple of Amenhotep III were
large
decorated blocks from the
re-used in the building of this relatively modest complex, including fragments of Anubis sphinxes. Bibliography: William
M. Flinders
(London 1897) 10-13; Horst in
Qurna,
in:
Jaritz,
Temples at Thebes
Petrie, Six
Der Totentempel des Merenptah
MDAIK 48 (1992) 65-91; Horst Jaritz, The temple palace
of Merenptah in his house of a million years at Qurna,
House and Palace 99-106; Susanne
Bickel,
in: Bietak,
Untersuchungen im
Totentempel des Merenptah in Theben (Stuttgart 1997).
Merenre, pyramid of The precinct of the pyramid 'Merenre Appears Perfection' lies in an
Saqqara.
It
inconspicuous wadi
at
badly ruined and has received
is
scholarly attention.
in
South little
Remains have been found of
a
mortuary offering room and a rectangular antechamber. Wall
reliefs are
pyramid
are
unfinished.
known
pyramid, 90-95
m
A north chapel and The
to have existed.
high, severely
quarrying, was restored in
a cult
interior of the
damaged- by stone
1971-82. The walls are
inscribed with Pyramid Texts. A black basalt sarcophagus
and canopic chest
are preserved.
false door, offering tables
granite quarries of Aswan of an official Bibliography:
The acquisition of the
and door frames from the is
described in the biography
named Weni. Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian
Literature
I
(Berkeley 1973) 21; LaueuSaqqara 182-184; Lauer, Mystere 133-134, Plates pp. 336-337;
J.
Leclant, in: Orientalia 51
Stadelmann, Pyramiden 195.
(1982) 433-434;
Plan of the mastaba of Mereruka for
at
Saqqara, showing groups of rooms
Mereruka (A), Watkhethor (B) and Meriteti Meri
locations of shafts
and
burial
chambers
(C),
and supposed
;
152
Meret
I
Meret
Mirgissa
Ten Meret buildings dating from the reigns Sneferu
Pepy
to
are attested to in inscriptions but not yet in the
II
Iken in Egyptian, an important trade and arms depot on
Bank of
the West
the Nile at the Second Cataract, where
They may have some connection with sun temples or valley temples in the ritualistic
Amenemhat
observance of the sacred marriage of the king, as the
covered an area of 190 x 175 m, surrounded on the three
archaeological record.
Maru temples
on the edge of the
(1963)
zum Hathorkult
9;
(bis
inland-facing sides by a double system of walls fronted
with a keep and dry moat.
A Hathor
sanctuary erected
above dates from the 18th Dynasty.
zum Ende
46-47;
I
S.
des Mittleren Reiches),
Allam,
Bibliography:
MAS 4
(1916) 165-166; H.G.Lyons, The temple
Reiches (Wiesbaden 1978) 100-102; W. Barta, Zur Lokalisierung in:
ZAS
1
und
10 (1983) 98-104.
S.
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses, in: JEA 3 at Mirgisse, in:
Kush 8 (1960) 17-24; Mirgissa
Meretseger, sanctuary of
N.F. Wheeler,
Jean Vercoutter, Excavations at Mirgissa,
small, primeval rock sanctuary of the cobra goddess
(1965) 62-68; Jean Vercoutter, Mirgissa Zibelius, Mirgissa, in: Helck,
Medinet Habu.
Bautdtigkeit, 48-49.
B.
Bruyere, Men Seger a Deir
el
Me'dineh (Cairo
1
3 (1916) in:
Diary of the excavation of
Kush 9 (1961) 87-179; Dows Dunham, Uronarti
fort, in:
Meretseger and Ptah lay between Deir el-Medina and
Bibliography:
JEA
182-183; G.A. Reisner, The Egyptian forts from Haifa to Semna,
Shalfak Mirgissa, Second Cataract Forts, Vol. 2 ( Boston
A
III, it
New Kingdom
Karola Zibelius, Agyptische Siedlungen nach Texten desAlten
Bedeutung der mrt-Bauten,
erected a fortress, 100 x
have been the
Ricke, Userkaf
7;
II
in size. Enlarged in the reign of Senwosret
may
cultivation.
Bibliography: Junker, Giza VI Beitrage
m
and Senwosret
of the
incarnation of Re, to Hathor. They
forerunners of the
175
II
in: I
1
967 ) 1 4 1 - 1 9 1
Kush 12 (1964) 57-62; 13
(Paris 1970) 8-13; K.Chen-
LA IV 144-145;
Hein, Ramessidische
930)
Mo'alla
Metal overlay on stone structures
The
Overlays of gold, electrum and silver played an important
of the First Intermediate Period, 30
role
in
the achievement of magic effects (such as
deification or immortalisation) in Egyptian temples.
No
site
of the rock
Following Old
tombs
Kingdom
consists of a forecourt
of Ankhtyfy and Sebekhotep
km
south of Luxor.
tomb of Ankhtyfy
tradition, the
and a transverse
hall,
20
m wide
actual overlays have been preserved; the only evidence
and
consists of peg holes.
furnished with approximately 30 pillars, varying from
a)
The points of obelisks were usually tipped with
metal; decoration
and hieroglyphs near the top
metal overlay in some cases (Senwosret Is obelisks at Heliopolis, Hatshepsut's
also bore
Atum temple
and Thutmosis
Ill's
obelisks at Karnak).
irregularly shaped,
four- to eight-sided.
commonly used
one of the
The wall paintings
in the
and
earliest in Egypt,
are in the style
Upper Egyptian nomes and
important for the history of provincial
are
art.
Bibliography: Jacques Vandier, Mo'alla; la tombe d'Ankhtifi et la tombe
de Sebekhotep (Paris 1950).
b) Metal overlays are attested to in several examples of 18th Dynasty columns, on the foot, shaft, capital and abacus. c)
The doorways
in
some important passageways,
the pyramid temple of Senwosret
and the temple of Ramesses
III at
III,
the
in
Ramesseum
Medinet Habu, had
a
The
reliefs
on some temple walls were overlaid with
metal, especially
when
door
addorsed
in the case of
(as
chapels) they were situated cult (false
at the centre
of a particular
in the central portion of Karnak, the
north-facing outside wall of the hypostyle hall at Karnak, the rear wall of the temples of
Dendera and Edfu).
P.
Kingdom, most often
Lacau, L'or dans l'achitecture egyptienne,
(1955) 221-250; D. Arnold, Goldverkleidung,
in:
in:
ASAE
53
LA
II
Helck,
next
life.
An
el-Kedua
for use in the
from the Djoser precinct takes the form of a tower with
side.
A model
Heliopolis
down on one
of the facade of a temple of Sety
(now
in
I
at
Brooklyn) was probably a votive
The limestone model of the
subterranean rooms of an
Middle Kingdom (now
unknown
in a
king's
magazine
at
tomb of
the
Saqqara) may
have been a demonstration sample. Hand-size models
architectural Tell
New
the form of grain stores,
in
battlements with a rope ladder hanging
of the capitals of
754-755.
Migdol, see
wood have been found among
alabaster jar stand, probably ornamental,
offering in a temple.
Bibliography: Ludwig Borchardt, Allerhand Kleinigkeiten (Leipzig
1933) 1-11;
of clay and
grave goods dating from pre-historic times to the
workshops and garden houses intended
metal overlay. d)
Model Model houses
columns and other important
elements
allowed
sculptors
of
the
Ptolemaic period to establish the form and dimensions to
be used
in particular projects. Stone
models of multi-
Model house storey
town houses, which had an unknown, but
probably religious, function, perhaps as votive offerings or lamps, date to the
Graeco-Roman
not have such an important role
in
period. Models did
Egyptian art and in
Kultgartens
BM
36903: JEA 80 (1994), Plate
8.
Models
!
153
in general:
Henry A. Millon, Ed., The Renaissance from Brunelleschi to Michelangelo. The Representation of Architecture, Exhibition Catalogue (Washington 1995).
antiquity generally as in the architecture of later
Roman
periods. (Models of towns were exhibited in
triumphal processions; church models were produced in Italy in the
Middle Ages, becoming widespread from the
Bibliography: R. Engelbach, Four models of Graeco-Roman buildings,
ASAE
degres,
31 (1931) 129-131; Jean-Philippe Lauer,
Complements
Noblecourt,
Un model
(Cairo
III
citadine
1939)
Fig.
29;
du Novel Empire,
La pyramide a C.
in:
Desroches-
RdE
3 (1930)
17-25; H. Ricke, Ein Hausmodell im Kestnermuseum zu Hannover, in:
ZAS
93 (1966) 119-123; A.Badawy.A monumental gateway for a
temple of King Seti
I,
in:
Miscellanea Wilbouriana
Arnold, Building 9-10, Figs
1.6, 47,
Architekturmodelle in Vorderasien
Neolothikum
bis
in
das
from the
First
Intermediate Period and the Middle
Kingdom. Three types may be distinguished:
Renaissance onwards.)
in:
Model house Models of houses are found among grave goods, mainly
1.
1
(New York
1972);
55A. 60; Joachim Bretschneider,
und der
ostlichen Agais
vom
und
Altes
Jahrtausend, Alter Orient
Testament, Vol. 229 (Neunkirchen-Vluyne
1991); Modell eines
a)
Oval or rectangular offering tables,
made
of
clay,
having elements of a farmstead with an enclosure wall depicted in modelling. b) Clay offering tables with the rear part modelled in the shape of a c) clay,
tomb chapel
True models,
of houses
made
or house (Jca-house).
of
wood
or,
very occasionally,
and pavilions which have
to offering tables
or
lost all relation
model tombs, and which were
included with grave goods together with models of grain stores and workshops.
A
few examples of this type are
important for the reconstruction of Egyptian houses
thanks to the
realistic
way
staircases, fresh air shafts,
upper storeys and
their
and so on,
are
shown.
There are also some limestone models dating to the
Ptolemaic-Roman period, mostly of tower-shaped houses with multiple storeys; their purpose
Limestone model of a king's tomb of the valley temple of Amenemhat
III at
late
Dahshur
is
Middle Kingdom, from the
Ceramic model of a house, from Rifa
in Cairo
unknown.
Month
154
Bibliography:
W.M.
precinct (Karnak)
Flinders Petrie, Gizeh
and
Rifeh
(London 1907);
Robert Mond, Cemeteries of Armant (London 1937) 59, 63, Plate 22; Herbert
E.
Winlock, Models of Daily Life
1955); R. Stadelmann, Hausmodelle,
in
Ancient Egypt (New York
Helck,
in:
LA
Ersten Zwischenzeit
und des
Mittleren Reiches,
in:
Etudes
et
5
km
bull),
which
is
way connected the at
a platform,
Medamud,
an avenue of
sphinxes and barque stations. The enclosure wall of
Nectanebo
measuring 151 x 155 m, had a massive
I,
in
Privatgrabern der
Ptolemy
III
in:
Haltesche Beitrage
was erected by Amenhotep
north side, the Bab el-'Abd, built by
and Ptolemy
The actual Month temple
IV.
to replace a previous
III
structure of the early 18th Dynasty, re-using blocks of the
The body of the temple
latter.
m
platform, 1.15
sanctuary of the god Month (a deity
shown sometimes
away The road included
in the
Helck,
precinct (Karnak)
An important
processional
gateway
in:
zur Orientwissenschaft 3 (1980) 77-87.
Month
A
Karnak.
at
temple to the main cult centre of Month
LA
Travaux 8 (1975) 73-112; A. Niwinski, Seelenhaus,
806-813; M. Stoof, Modelle von Speicherhofen
1067-1068;
II
A. Niwihski Plateaux d'offrandes et maisons d'ames,
Amun
as falcon-headed
and sometimes as
a
situated to the north of the precinct of
in height.
is
erected on a
The stonework has eroded,
with the exception of a few courses of stone. The front part of the building
is
decorated with two rows of six
columns, typical of structures erected by Amenhotep
The body of the temple
columns and barque chambers gods.
A
crypt
is
at the rear
new
the front, with
for
Month and
associated
concealed by a secret sliding block.
Later in the reign of
extended
III.
consists of a hall with four
Amenhotep
III,
was
the sanctuary
and a columned court was added stairs
up
at
to the raised platform,
flanked by a pair of obelisks The temple thus covered a .
total area of 26.25
m
x 52.50
(50 x 100 cubits). Under
Taharqa, a kiosk of columns was added in front, and further alterations were carried out in the Ptolemaic period. Against the rear wall of the temple of Month
is
an
addorsed temple of the goddess Maat. Standing parallel former
to the
is
the elongated sanctuary of Taharqa,
dedicated to Harpre. To the west of the enclosure temple-like treasury building of Thutmosis
by H. and
J.
I,
lies
the
excavated
lacquet.
Bibliography: Clement Robichon and Louis-A. Christophe, Karnak-
Nord,
III,
Varille,
1945-1949, FIFAO 23 (Cairo 1951) 15-18, Plates 50-52; A.
Karnak
I,
FIFAO 19 (Cairo 1943); Clement Robichon, Paul
Barguet and Jean Leclant, Karnak-Nord IV (Cairo 1951, 1954); Jean
Karnak-NordW (Cairo
]acquet, tre'sorde
Nord
VI.
Thoutmosis
1983); Jean Jacquet,
Ier (Cairo 1983);
Le tresor de Thoutmosis
Karnak-Nord V.Le
Helen ]acquet-Gordon, Karnak-
Ier.
La decoration (Cairo 1988);
Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 144-146; H. Sternberg-El-Hotabi, Der
Propylon des Month-Tempels in Karnak-Nord: Zum Dekorationsprinzip des Tores (Wiesbaden 1993).
Montuemhat, tomb of The second
largest of the great
tombs of the Ethiopian
period (around 660 BC) in the Assasif at Thebes (TT 34).
The pylon,
still
visible
from
afar,
followed by a
is
courtyard measuring 47 x 110 m, which encloses a stylised primeval
ground
Plan of the
Month temple
at
Karnak
(after C.
Robichon)
mound
at
the back
and the under-
areas, only partially investigated.
There are two
sun courts
laid out in a particularly interesting
(sun court,
Fig.), the first
way
of which takes the form of a
sunken lake surrounded by huge stylised papyrus
Multiple shrine
//
155
j
//
Plan of the
tomb of Montuemhat (TT
34) at Thebes
umbels (possibly modelled on the mortuary temple of
mixed with gypsum and sand (used
Amenophis, son
Mortar made of burnt lime has not been attested
of Hapu).
There follow innumerable inner rooms, including
before the Ptolemaic period.
an intricate burial complex and a sarcophagus chamber,
structures,
with
(making
it
sarcophagus
its
Surrounding
into the floor.
set
are 19 niches containing protective statues of black
granite. Jean
d'Amon (Cairo
Leclant,
1961); Eigner, Grabbauten 44-46,
Manuelian, Two fragments of
Montuemhet
at
Montouemhat, quatrieme prophete
Thebes,
in:
relief
and
a
new model
117;
for the
P.
Der
tomb
of
could be mixed with pure Nile
it
to
in brick
mud
blackish grey mortar), or with sand,
a
tafl
(yellow) or chaff. Mortar used as plaster
contains large quantities of coarse chaff, being finished
with a thin layer of fine mortar. Ceiling plaster contains
more gypsum and
JEA 71 (1985) 98-121.
used
plaster).
pulverised limestone (producing a white mortar), marl clay,
Bibliography:
When
as
or pulverised limestone (true stucco)
fine plant fibre.
Bibliography: A. Lucas and J.R. Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials
Monumentality One of
the
most
and
elements
essential
architecture, created
by colossal
scale,
Egyptian
of
Industries
(London 1962) 74-76; Arnold, Building 291-294;
Eigner, Grabbauten 79-80; R. Fuchs, Stuck,
arrangement, geometrical formalism, extensive form, use
Multiple shrine
of hard stone and the sequence in which individual
A
features appear. 'patron',
Monumentality represents the
whether the king or the
State, as
structure's
guarantor of
and chaos. With similar conditions and
images (as
monumental
style
still
Bemerkungen
I
objectives,
Either
of these
all
at
is
used for
onto the central
room
Period, this concept
in the construction of
Egyptian stone
joining stones, as
lubricant
frequently in the repair of
damaged
a
stones.
and
Mortar of
the pharaonic period consisted exclusively of either clay
mixed with pulverised limestone and sand, or
for cult
Hierakonpolis, Medinet Madi and Qasr
el-Sagha) or only the outer chambers, which then open
appears today.
14-18.
Mortar, see a/so plaster Mortar
87-92.
was a transverse
rooms were shrines
(as at
Dynasty, and especially in the
buildings
LA VI
Dynasty onwards, consisting of
three to seven rooms, in front which hall.
Bibliography: Ricke,
Helck,
type of structure found regularly in Egyptian
architecture from the 1st
order and continuity, in opposition to the menace of ruin
therefore,
in:
mathematical
clay
Amada). From
the 13th
New Kingdom and the
was adopted
Late
for the construction of
free-standing or underground private
tomb
chapels.
The
basic plan of the multiple shrine was occasionally also
used either
in all
house
construction. In brick-built structures,
the rooms, or at least the transverse hall, were
roofed with a barrel vault.
Mut
156
precinct (Karnak)
Multiple shrines in temples and tombs. A: 'Khentyimentyu temple' of the 1st dynasty at Abydos; B: temple of Horus of the Old
Hierakonpolis; C: temple of Amenemhat
Bibliography:
Ann
H.
Bomann, The
(London and New York 1991); M.
III at
Medinet Madi; D: tomb of Puyemre (TT 39)
Private Chapel in Ancient Egypt.
Bietak, Kleine agyptische
und VVohnhauser des spaten Mittleren Reiches, Leclant,
BdE 106
in:
Tempel
Hommages a Jean
(1994), 413-435; G.T. Martin, The Hidden Tombs of
Memphis (London 1991) 37,43, 19-20, 1
at
Thebes;
tomb of Horemheb
E:
at
surrounded on three sides by Sekhmet
Kingdom
(?) at
Saqqara
statues; the
second
courtyard contains a kiosk with Hathor pillars and
Sekhmet
statues.
the back of the
A small addorsed temple stands against
main
structure.
The temple
is
surrounded
on three sides by a horseshoe-shaped sacred lake.
153.
On the west bank of the lake are the remains of temple
Mut An
precinct (Karnak)
'C of Ramesses
Amun
dedicated to
Mut
form of a
was dedicated
still
is
II
wall encloses at least six sanctuaries.
construction history of the details are
awaited.
A
main temple
temple
is
is
likely to
the
and The
complex and have existed
here in the Middle Kingdom, replaced in the 18th Dynasty (possibly by Hatshepsut) with a
furnished by
Amenhotep
statues in the
III
structure,
and
later
with hundreds of granite
alterations to the temple
during the 25th Dynasty and
Ptolemaic period. The pylon, a
new
form of the lioness-headed Sekhmet.
Remains have survived of the itself
the north-east corner,
(the consort of Amun), in the
monumental entrance decorated by Ptolemy The
A', in
had three small pylons and resembled a birth house;
enclosure wall, which measures 250 x 350 m,
III.
Temple
Karnak,
vulture or lioness-headed goddess. In the north side of the
Ptolemy
III.
at
area, south of the temple of
kiosk of Taharqa. Situated
like a
its
renewal in the
bulwark,
is
fronted by
in the first courtyard
is
a kiosk
to
Khonsupakhred (Ramesses
II
it
and the
25th Dynasty), and was longer than the main temple.
A
large part of the temple of
Mut was dismantled
in
1840 for the erection of a factory. Bibliography:
J.
Benson-Gourlay, The temple of Mut in Asher
(London 1899); Serge Sauneron I'enceinte
et al.,
La porte ptolemaique de
de Mout a Karnak (Cairo 1983); M.
Khonsou dans
Mout
I'enceinte de
Pillet,
a Karnak, in:
Le temple de
ASAE
38 (1938)
469-478; Haeny, Basilikale Anlagen 24-26; R. Fazzini, The precinct of
Mut during Dynasty
picture, in:
JSSEA
temple of Mut, Tempel, Karnak,
in: in:
11
XXV
and
early
Dynasty XXVI. A growing
(1981) 115-126; R. Fazzini, Excavating the
Archeology 36 (1983) 16-23; R. Fazzini, Mut Helck,
LA 248-251;
goddess Mut: South Karnak,
in:
R. Fazzini, Precinct of the
Archeological
Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 124-127.
News
16 (1991) 71ff.;
Mut
precinct (Karnak)
r © © @
o
o
o
60
Plan of temple 'A' at Karnak, dedicated to Khonsupakhred (Ramesses
and the 25th Dynasty)
II
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Plan of the main temple in the
Mut
precinct at
Karnak
100
157
N Nadura
unroofed sanctuary courts. Shrines made of wood are
Ruins of two small decorated temples in the Kharga
Amun
Oasis, likely to be outposts of the
temple of
El-Kharga, probably dating to the reign of Antonius Pius. Bibliography: Reconstruction: Aufrere, L'Egypte restitute
II
also preserved
and depicted. In the New Kingdom they
were also designed Bibliography:
to
be nested one inside another.
De Morgan, Dahchour
1894, 91, Figs 212-216; Jequier,
Manuel, 317-325; Giinther Roeder, Naos,
97.
Catal. gen. des antiquites
Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire (Cairo 1914); A.H. Gardiner,
Naos, see also kiosk
A
A.M. Calverly and M.F. Broome, The Temple of King Sety
accommodation
free-standing closeable shrine for the
of a cult image. In a
tomb
or temple, they usually stand in
offering chambers, in the sanctuary behind the god's
barque, in their
own
barque chamber
cult
image room, or
else
Vol. Ill
Naos,
(London-Chicago 1938),Plates
in:
Helck,
LA IV 341-342; M.
10,
Miiller, Schrein, in: Helck,
709-712.
behind the
against the rear wall of a temple.
The
ceremonial opening of a naos was subject to specific
The naos
rituals.
made
in
was
the Early Dynastic Period
of perishable material (as indicated in hiero-
glyphic depictions), appearing in a wealth of different
forms (Per-wer, Per-nu, Min chapel). Some forms are reproduced in stone (such as granite and other hard stones).
As
a 'temple within the temple', the
naos
is
usually an upright rectangular structure on a cube-
shaped plinth and crowned with
a frieze of uraei;
pyramid-shaped roof represents the primeval
its
low
mound
on which the deity emerges from the primeval ocean on the day of creation. Naoi are rich in decoration
and
texts.
At Gebel el-Silsila naoi are carved out of the rock,
crowned with falcons and a pair of obelisks. Richly detailed depictions of naoi exist in the temple
Abydos.
A
sketch for the construction of a
of Sety
I at
naos
preserved on a papyrus in University College
is
London. Some early examples of naoi
are: Djoser's at
Heliopolis (Turin), Userkafs in his sun temple
Pepy
I's
at
Elephantine and Senwosret
Several late examples exist at Edfu, Philae,
may also be found in the Museums Marseilles,
and
in the Louvre.
at Abusir,
Ill's at
Karnak.
Dabod and
of Cairo, Florence and
From
the Late Period
onwards, naoi on a monumental scale are
made
of hard
stone, examples being: the seven naoi in the temple of
Bastet at Bubastis; the
Neith
at
naoi, 7
Amasis naos
Sais (reportedly 21 cubits
=
in the
10.5
temple of
m high); four
m high, in the temple of Mendes; and one in the
temple of Wadjet naoi of
at
Buto
(said to be 40 cubits high).
Mendes and Bubastis mav have
The
stood in
I at Abydos,
13-14, 16,33,41;D.Wildung,
Reconstruction of a naos with closed wooden doors
LA V
Nef eref re, pyramid of Naqada, see 'Menes', tomb of
80
km
for
Greeks
Amasis or 800
earlier.
m in area in
now
Milet in the Western Delta,
of the 26th Dynasty, in the reign of
The
at
Thebes (TT 157) of the high
Kom
Ga'if,
which was
885, was only partially
still
400 x
examined and
II.
Amun,
This
an
is
example of the large Theban tombs of the Ramesside period.
A
forecourt,
surrounded by pillared halls,
followed by a transverse hall, cut into the rock, 25
is
m wide,
divided by 12 Osiride pillars into two naves. Beyond, a
is
corridor with two rows of 12 pillars leads into the cult
completely flattened and waterlogged. The main
chapel with three statue niches. A steep corridor descends
1
temenos (212 x 250 m)
the south. To the north are
lies in
from the chapel, changing direction several times, and
four temenoi, dedicated to the Dioscuri, Apollo, Hera and
leads to the sarcophagus
Aphrodite, with temples in the Greek style. The Ionic
sarcophagus sunk into the
columns of the early Apollo temple date
side of the hill
566 BC. The Bibliography:
site
W.M.
had extensive
A. Gardner, Naukratis II
to
approximately
living quarters.
Flinders Petrie, Naukratis
I
(London 1886); Ernest
(London
etc.
tombs, 46-47;
William D.E. Coulson and Albert Leonard, Naukratis (Malibu 1981 ); H. de Meulenaere, Naukratis,
in:
70 (1934) 29,
Dinsmoor, The
B.
(Cities of the Delta
Helck,L4 IV 360-361.
is
chamber with floor. Built
eight pillars
and
in:
an enormous brick pyramid.
Fig. 5; C.S. Fisher's description,
University of Pennsylvania,
L. Bell,
a
on a platform on the
Bibliography: Unpublished. See: L. Borchardt's reconstruction in
1950) 125-126, 134;
(London 1988); William
Architecture of Ancient Greece, 4th Ed.
I)
priest of
Nebwenenef, of the reign of Ramesses
south-east of Alexandria, founded as a settlement at the start
59
Nebwenenef, tomb of Tomb
Naukratis (Kom Ga'if) An offshoot of the town of
1
A
The Museum Journal 15 ( 1924)
The work of the University Museum
Expedition 10 (1968) 38-47; L.
Bell,
ZAS
group of Theban
Return
to
Thebes,
in:
Dra Abu el-Naga,
in:
at
Expedition 11 (1969) 26-37.
Reconstruction of the tomb of Nebwenenef (TT 157) brick pyramid
and funerary cones
Neferefre, pyramid of The pyramid of Neferefre (successor of called 'Divine are the
Bas
at
Thebes, with a
in the facade (after L. Borchardt)
of Neferefre',
Neferirkare),
is at
Abusir.
It
was unfinished on the death of the king, consisting at that time only of the construction shaft with an approach
ramp and
the lower courses of the
then completed as east side, there
is
a
pyramid
core,
mastaba; nonetheless, in
an important
cult building,
and was
front of the
temporary
and made of brick, but which contained all the necessary accommodation and - as proved by numerous finds -
was
in use over a lengthy period.
serving cult activities
is
Bibliography: M.Verner.in:
M.Verner, Ionic at
column from
the archaising temple
Naukratis (after W.M.F. Petrie)
in:
BSFE 91
A
large slaughterhouse
a particularly interesting feature.
ZAS
108 (1981) 77-81; 115 (1988) 77-84;
(1981) 12-14; M.Verner.in:
MDAIK 42
(1986)
181-189; M. Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids, Abusir (Prague 1994) 133-154.
Neferirkare, pyramid of
160
Nefermaat and Atet, tomb of An early 4th Dynasty brick mastaba (M
16) at
Meidum
(measuring 68 x 121 m) with two offering areas. The Fig.
shows the development of the
cult
thickly covered with a
mound
inner chapel
of pebbles. As yet no
(Fig.,
1)
consists of limestone blocks
weighing 8-11 tonnes each, decorated with sunk
View over the ruins of the brick pyramid temple of Neferefre
at
Abusir
mud
chambers have been found. The casing of the
burial
filled
The
place.
nucleus consists of layers constructed of Nile
relief
with an unusual colour paste. The ceiling consists
of a single block weighing 33 tonnes.
The
cult niches
were decorated with paintings (including the famous
'Meidum
Neferirkare, pyramid of
The
pyramid
Neferirkare',
is at
Abusir. In the absence of excavations
decorated the monumental door frame with inlaid
this building.
It
'The
called
it
is
impossible to
has a stepped core which was
possibly enlarged at a later stage (perhaps from six to eight steps).
The
standard of wall
painting reached in the early Old Kingdom. The artist
Neferirkare,
and investigation of the structure understand
geese'), attesting to the high
Ba of
of
actual
pyramid was constructed over
m (200 cubits) and height
this,
with a side length of 105
72.8
m. The bottom courses had incomplete casing
reliefs,
a
unique
artistic
experiment, never repeated
again: the shapes of the figures were hollowed out filled
Bibliography:
W.M.
and
with coloured pastes. W.M.
Medum (London
1892) 14-15;
Meydum and Memphis (London
1910) 18-22;
Flinders Petrie,
Flinders Petrie,
in
granite, giving a slope of 54°30'. The sarcophagus
chamber has
a roof of triple relieving slabs of limestone.
Damage caused by stones
is
the wrenching away of the facing
so severe that
it
is
impossible to excavate the
chamber. The axis of the entrance corridor only part of the cult
is offset.
The
complex completed in stone by the
time of the king's death were a few rooms of the
mortuary temple; the
rest
was finished
in brick.
Situated to the south are two boat burials.
The
causeway and valley temple were redirected later, in the reign of Niuserre, towards his pyramid precinct. Bibliography: Borchardt, Nefer-ir-ke-Re;
MRA
Vll 112-175; Edwards,
Pyramids 181-183; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 171-174; M. Verner, The 'South Boat' of Neferirkare,
Remarks on
the
in:
ZAS
107 (1980) 168-169; M. Verner,
Pyramid of Neferirkara,
in:
MDAIK
47 (1991)
41 1-418; M. Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids, Abusir (Prague 1994) 76-79.
Development of the
Meidum.
1:
cruciform chapel;
View of the pyramid of Neferirkare
at
Abusir
cult areas of the
mastaba of Nefermaat and Atet
decorated cult area faced with limestone; 3:
new cult
2:
niche surrounded by niched decoration;
subsequent addition of stela court
at
conversion into a 4:
Niching W'.S.
Smith, The paintings of the chapel ofAtet at
Some
(1937) 17-26; A.B. Bolshakov,
chronology of Meidum,
in:
GM
Medum,
in:
JEA 24
observations on the early
123(1991) 11-20.
pyramid of Amenemhat
earlier burial in the
burial
161
III.
The
accommodation, which has not been robbed, has
been damaged by sub-soil water. Bibliography: Nagib Farag and Zaki Iskander, The Discovery of
tomb
Nefertari,
of,
see also
Abu Simbel
The tomb of Nefertari, the chief wife of Ramesses Simbel)
is
Neferwptah (Cairo 1971); E.Martin-Pardey, Neferuptah,
(Abu
II
No. 66 in the Valley of the Queens (also
Thebes. The complex
compressed version of
king's tomb, including a
sarcophagus chamber with four
sunken
floor level
famous
for
its
pillars
and the
for the sarcophagus.
is
a
central
The tomb
is
spectacular and well-preserved wall
Nensedjerkai,
An unusual constructed
tomb
stone at
Giza
of mastaba
in the
The square mastaba nucleus
is
courtyard
into a transverse corridor with
is
a gateway niche with two pillars; this leads
Bibliography: Ernesto Schiaparelli, Relazione sui lavori della Missione
mastaba
Archeologica Italiana in Egitto (Anni 1903-20),VolA (Turin 1923);
translated into stone.
tombes de
1995).
Model
in:
in the
d'Egitto, Exhibition
Museo Egizio, Turin: Egyptian
Monumental Art, The Museum of Turin (Turin
the Wall
Getty
Catalogue
Civilization.
1989), Fig. 76.
queen of the
km to the south-east Amenemhat III. It
12th Dynasty, stands near Hawara, 2
measures
c.
50 x 50
approach way:
it
m and has a stone casing. There was erected over the sealed
chamber containing
97-121.
the sarcophagus. Neferuptah
is
no
burial
had an
680 BC) on the slope
of the Assasif ( TT 3 1 2 ) The complex, built within a .
tomb of
the 11th Dynasty, differs from contemporary great tombs
having a detached tomb temple. Behind
monumental facade
with beautiful last
II
Nespeqashuty, tomb of A Late Period Theban tomb (around
in the valley in not
Nef eruptah, pyramid of The brick pyramid of Neferuptah, the
two false doors. This
particularly interesting as a brick structure
Bibliography: Junker, Giza
the
of the pyramid of her father,
is
B1FAO 89
Memmo, The
Monica 1992); Fondazione
Conservation Institute, Nefertari luce
(Rome
des reines,
Tomb of Nefetari. Conservation of
(1989) 241-247; In the Paintings (Santa
la vallee
Khufu.
fronted to the east by a
house-like cult building of stone. Rising beyond a
wall paintings in the kings' tombs.
Hedvvig Machold, Nofretari (publ. G. Thausing und H. Goedecke, Graz
shape of a house
for a princess of the reign of
paintings which surpass the quality of contemporary
1971); C. Leblanc, Les
Helck.LA
known
as the Biban el-Harim) at a
in:
381-382.
relief slabs
is
a vaulted
and
which a passage leads down
a
chamber decorated
room with
to the burial
six niches,
from
chamber.
Bibliography: Eigner, Grabbauten 50-51.
Niching From
the time of the Unification onwards, the facades of
brick buildings were elaborately subdivided
to
produce a
^////<'/;y//.///'////'^-y//^
m m
v,.y,////////////y/.Y//y///,//////,/,
i m
m#'frZ's//////////'."'////. %'//"///,,
r~
wtmM y//'"///"V/;/,>y//,v/;/'/''A
Plan of the
tomb of Queen
Nefertari in the Valley of the
Queens (QV 66)
Niching
162
sequence of regular projections alternating with recesses.
Because such niching seems precursors,
pre-historic
it
to
have appeared without
is
assumed
that
is
was
Dynasty the concept of niching was
In the 3rd
transferred to stone constructions (precinct of Djoser,
Sekhemkhet), but
royal
tomb
precincts from then on
influenced by Mesopotamian brick architecture of the
were no longer signalled as palaces. In the 4th Dynasty
Uruk (3400-3200 BC) and Jemdet-Nasr (3200-2900 BC)
niching strayed
cultures.
However, niching embellished with bundles of
papyrus umbels
at
the tops of the projecting parts
suggests a Lower Egyptian origin. As
it
developed, the
pyramids and
down
into the sarcophagus niches of
chambers. Niching
into private burial
resembling the decorated facades
wooden and
found on both
is
stone sarcophagi from the 4th Dynasty
symbolism associated with such niches emphasised the
onwards (Menkaure, Khufuankh, Rawer ). Niche patterns
connection with the royal palace in the
with window
afterlife.
There are
two main types of niching: a)
that
Simple niching with projections and recesses
found
on the long
in military fortifications,
like
where the projections
sides are subdivided with three niches,
and the
show that serdabs represented palaces
slots
(mastaba of Seshemnefer
in the next life
III at
Giza).
Modelled on the tomb precincts of the 3rd Dynasty, the
Dynasty pyramid precincts of Senwosret
late 12th
Senwosret
Amenemhat
and
III
and
III,
II,
that of
short sides with two niches, while the recesses consist of
Khendjer
one main and two flanking side-niches.
enclosure walls of brick or stone. Several examples of
b)
A more
the niches
is
elaborate variant in which the surface of
intricately
subdivided (palace facade). The
Dynasty
in the 13th
all
12th Dynasty had niching
private mastabas of the
to indicate their association with palaces in the next
Senwosretankh
panels are decorated with colourful depictions of
world:
hanging mats. The most ornate examples of such niching
Dahshur. This archaising trend
occur
at
the
start
of the development, becoming
Ornate facades dominate royal structures, but the
same
structure
may
bear both kinds of decoration
(Saqqara, mastaba 3505).
Kingdom sarcophagi from
Intricate, small niches
were
Khnumhotep
the necropoleis of
Dahshur,
was only the
it
at
followed in Middle
is
plinth
or the lower part of the sarcophagus which was
decorated in such a way as to suggest a surrounding
niched wall.
The use of niching was revived
occasionally formed out of particularly small bricks (bricks,
El-Lisht,
at
Illahun and Hawara. Usually
increasingly simple with time.
had one or two niched
New Kingdom,
in the
being prominent in the Hatshepsut temple, on the plinth
moulded).
of the Chapelle Rouge, on the rock facade of several
Theban tombs of the 18th Dynasty (User-Amun TT Ineni
TT
8
1
,
Senenmut TT
7
1
TT 146) and in the burial Horemheb at Saqqara. Its final
flourishing occurred in the
Period tombs
at
131,
Puyemre TT39, Nebamun chamber of the tomb of
,
monumental
Late
Thebes Pedamenophis, Padihorresnet, (
Sheshonq and Padineith), while isolated examples occur as late as the Ptolemaic period. is
found
in
some
later
A diluted
Serapeum and
the Apis bulls at the
niched sarcophagus produced was
Auguste Mariette Egyptian
present
(at
Museum
form of niching
sarcophagi (those of Ramesses
still
II,
of
of Aspelta). The last
made
in the
in
1882 for
gardens of the
at Cairo).
Bibliography: H. Balcz,
in:
MDAIK 1
(1930) 38-92;
W Wolf,
in:
ZAS 67
(1931) 129-131; Philippe Derchain, Zwei Kapellen des Ptolemaus'
I.
Soter in Hildesheim (Hildesheim 1961); W. Kaiser, Nischengliederung, in:
Helck,
LA IV 511-513; W.
G. Haeny, in: Helck,
7-32; E. Dziobek,
LA V 568 in:
Kaiser, in:
MDAIK
25 (1969) 4 A.l;
A.48; Miiller, Monumentalarchitektur
MDAIK
45 (1989)
110-117;
J.
Dorner,
Uberlegungen zur Fassadengliederung der groEen Mastabagraber aus der
1.
Dynastie,
in:
MDAIK
Nischengegliederte Grabfassaden
Niched enclosure wall of the pyramid complex of Senwosret
III at
Dahshur
MDAIK 47 (1991) 211-216.
47 (1991) 81-92; A. Krekeler,
im nordlichen
Teti-Friedhof, in:
North chapel, entrance chapel Nilometer
limestone blocks on a base approximately 20
built of
Knowledge of the height of the
was enormously
Nile
important to Egyptian agriculture and from the Early
side
Seasons. To the east of the obelisk
river,
marked
which extend down
off with scales for such
measurements, first
appear in the Late Period. The nilometer
was particularly important because Egypt which the inundation
first
into the
this
at
Elephantine
was the point
reached -
a
it is
in
Khnum
is
a
is
monumental
slaughtering facilities with gutters and drainage the south, in the desert, brick, 30
Roman
(= source deity)
and the Chamber of the
a sed-festival chapel
is
altar of alabaster; the southern courtyard contained
model of a
a
is
pits.
To
solar boat in
m long.
Bibliography: Friedrich W. von Bissing, Ed., Das Re-Heiligtum des
construction lying to the east of the temple of Satet.
Attached to the temple of
m
high accessed via an internal ramp. Attached to the south
Dynastic Period onwards careful measurements were taken. Staircases or corridors
163
Kbnigs Ne-woser-Re, 3 Vols (Leipzig 1905, 1923, 1928).
a
basin used for measuring the height of the Nile, dating to the reign of Nectanebo
which has recently been
II,
the nilometer described by Strabo.
identified with
were held beside such basins
Festivals
time of the
at the
appearance of the inundation. Bibliography: Strabo, Geographica, XVII. 1.48 (C 817); L. Borchardt,
Nilmesser
und Niktandsmarken
Zweierlei Pegelgleichungen
Agypten,
in:
Niuserre,
MDAIK 33
(
Berlin 1906); H. Jaritz
zum Messen
(1977) 47-62;
and M.
Jaritz, Terrassen.
pyramid of
The pyramid 'The Places of Niuserre Remain' was 50
m
Bietak,
der Nilfluthohen im Alten
Abusir
at
m
and
built in five steps.
The
high with a base length of 79.80
slope of 52°.
The nucleus was
Reconstruction of the sun temple of Niuserre
Abu Gurob
at
inside has been totally destroyed by stone quarrying.
The sarcophagus chamber of relieving slabs
— the
is
roofed with three layers
blocks weighing up to 90
tonnes each. The customary
pyramid temple
is
in
two parts because of lack of space. In the centre of the east side there
the
is
only the funerary offering room;
commemorative temple with
five
statue niches
was displaced southwards. The north-east and south-
North chapel, entrance chapel course
the
In
of
the
pyramids
of the
offering
and exhibit the type of decorative
table,
programme
typical of royal offering sites. In the 12th
east corners of the precinct are developed as massive
Dynasty the chapel of the
not known. The courtyard
north
(with basalt paving) was surrounded by corridors with
actual entrance Fig.).
and causeway have survived, the former,
but
like
that
remained
itself
of the
side
papyrus columns. Remains of the valley temple
main portico
and queens. Measuring
of kings
approximately 5 x 7 m, they have a false door and
bastions - their function
is
single-room
Dynasty,
5th
chapels developed above the entrance on the north side
the
at
centre
pyramid, although the
was moved elsewhere (queens' tombs,
Queens' pyramids occasionally have a north chapel, rare in private tombs.
it is
Any connection with
the
in
'palace'
on the north side of the Djoser pyramid
the east and a secondary one to the west. Three
unlikely,
whereas a link with the secondary
of Sahure, having two entrances, a
shrines inside
show
clearly that this building
was a
statue sanctuary.
the northern side of private It
Bibliography: Borchardt, Ne-user-Re;
MRA
8:
Edwards, Pyramids
183-184; Stadelmann, Pyramidal 175-178.
may be
Pepy III
I,
and
noted
Pepy
temple of (Abu Ghurob)
J.-P.
1
km north-west of the pyramids of Abusir. It consists of
a
valley temple (unexplored), a
m
long,
and a stone enclosure (83 x 101 m). The cult structure which it encloses was an obelisk, possibly 37 m high,
J.-P.
du
Lauer and roi
J.
mastabas
more
is
III at
I,
Senwosret
Lauer and
J.
Leclant,
roi Teti (Cairo
II,
Senwosret
Le temple haut du
1972) 43-44; A. Labrousse,
Leclant, Le temple haute
du complexe funeraire
Janosi,
275-280; D. Arnold, The Pyramid of Senwosret
Pyramidenanlagen I
76-83;A. Labrousse, L'architecture des pyramidesd Fig. 126.
plausible.
Hawara.
Ounas (Cairo 1977) 60-61;
167-169,
is
on
pyramids of Djedkare, Unas, Teti,
Senwosret
complexe funeraire du
The best-preserved sun temple of the Old Kingdom,
causeway 100
II,
Amenemhat
Bibliography:
Niuserre, sun
at the
cult area
(New York 1988)
textes (Cairo 1996)
Nubia
164 Nubia
1992).
The presence of Egyptian
disparus,
Kingdom onwards, in
culture in Nubia from the Old
particular the
programme
and
fortress construction of the 12th
and
in the reign of
Ramesses
behind an
intact
which was unique
cultural
and
until the
beginning of the 20th century. Temple, fortress
architectural landscape
and tomb complexes display forms
From 1892
Egyptian.
to
that are purely
1902 these were periodically
flooded as a result of the construction of the
first
dam
at
Aswan (the height of which was increased in 1907-12 and 1929-34), and were permanently submerged from 1960 in the lake created after construction of the second
Between
1960
and
1980
a
series
lost
in:
temples of Nubia:
CdE 38
L.
Christophe, Sanctuaires Nubiens
(1963) 17-29.
of temple
and 18th Dynasties
II, left
The
dam.
of international
Nubt The
site
of a small step
mastaba of the 3rd or early 4th site of Ombos, 35 km
Dynasty, near the Upper Egyptian
north of Luxor, measuring 18 x 18
m (including casing of
approximately 43 x 43 cubits). Like that el-Mayitin,
it
was probably three
small shaft near the centre
may have been
and
to relocate the
c.
Keating, Nubian Rescue
(London-New York
1975);
1962); P.
Bibliography: Petrie-Quibell,
Naqada and Ballas, 65, Plate
Stufenpyramiden 46-47.
Rex
Gilbert,
L'adaption de l'architecture religieuse de L'Egypte aux sites de Basse
Nubie,
CdE 35 (1960) 47-64;
in:
F.
Hinkel, Progress Report
on the
Dismantling and Removal of Endangered Monuments in Sudanese Nubia, Y.
in:
Kush 13 (1965) 96-101; 15 (1967-68) 1933-1999; William
Adams, Nubia, Corridor
Christophe, des sites et
to Africa
(London 1977) 163-245; Louis
Campagne Internationale de IVNESCOpour la sauvegarde
monuments de Nubie (UNESCO
1977); Victory in Nubia,
The Unesco Courier (Feb/Mar 1980); Oltre TEgitto: Nubia, Exhibition Catalogue (Milan 1985); Torgny Save-Soderbergh, Temples and Tombs
View of the 3rd Dynast)' step pyramid of Ancient Nubia (London 1987); Irmgard Hein, Die Ramessidische Bautatigkeit in Nubien, Gottinger Orientforschungen IV series, Vol. 22
(Wiesbaden 1991); Torgny Save-Soderbergh,
Victoire
en Nubie (Paris
A
created by
85; Reisner,
Development 339; Lauer, Histoire monumentale 227-228; Dreyer,
20 temples.
Bibliography: Rex Keating, Nubian Twilight (London
Zawyet
treasure hunters.
campaigns were waged to carry out emergency excavations (of only 14 fortresses)
at
to four steps high.
Nuri, see Taharqa
at
Nubt (Ombos)
o Obelisk
A
tall,
shaped
Heliopolis, and the largest
stone
pillar-like tip
monument
with a pyramid-
(pyramidion), interpreted as an abstract
representation of the
benben stone of Heliopolis or
as a
sunbeam. The pyramid-shaped upper end
petrified
equates to the primeval
mound,
symbol of
a
eternally
repeated creation. Obelisks were erected either singly on a
monumental base
of
sun temples, or
the entrance of a
structure as cult objects in the centre
else in pairs in front of a
tomb
(the latter in the
temple or
at
form of stelae
with offering tables, for example in the tomb of a queen of
Pepy I
at
Saqqara). The obelisks
in
sun temples of the
Old Kingdom, massive and stocky in shape, were constructed of blocks (Niuserre, height including base c.
is,
Kingdom,
Rome. Other obelisks
known
still
is
in front of the Lateran
standing
at
the beginning of
the 19th century were one each of Thutmosis
Hatshepsut
Karnak, two of Ramesses
at
of Thutmosis
III at
II at
(52.5
m) high
implausible. Pillar stela at
and
Alexandria and one small Ptolemaic
obelisk at Philae. Descriptions of obelisks
cubits
I
Luxor, one
existing
in
monuments, such
more than 100 antiquity
as, for
are
example, the
Abgig, are not true obelisks.
An unfinished obelisk at the granite quarries of Aswan provides information about its manufacture (stone quarrying techniques).
was carved out of
It
the rock by working off the stone percussively with dolerite
hammers and hollowed
out underneath. Traces
New Kingdom
of working indicate that around 130 workers were
however, already attested to in the Old
employed simultaneously over a period of approximately
57 m). The familiar
obelisk
in
like a tip at
reign of Teti
at
tall,
thin type of
Abusir and
a
fragment from the
Heliopolis. They bear dedication
some cases, decoration at the tip. In some examples, the tips were covered with a hammeredon layer of gilded bronze. The earliest completely inscriptions and, in
preserved obelisk
still
standing
Erection of a pair of obelisks using
is
that of Senwosret
ramps and ropes
I
at
one
year.
An
Karnak, 10 it
inscription
on the obelisk of Hatshepsut
at
m shorter than the Aswan obelisk, relates that
was completed
in seven
months.
It
was transported
on sledges, which were loaded on ships
downstream journey from Aswan,
for
the
as illustrated in the
temple of Hatshepsut. The theory that obelisks were
Opet temple (Karnak)
166
dragged up
ramp from which they were
high
a
lowered inside a sand funnel
unproven, although
is
building ramps, levers and ropes were certainly employed. The bases of some obelisks show transverse grooves where the underside of the obelisk was rotated
Domenico Fontana
at erection.
1586 needed 1000
in
workers and 100 horses to relocate the Vatican obelisk St. Peter's in
Rome
at
(transport).
From 10 BC, at least 13, from an originally vast but unknown number of obelisks, were taken to Rome, some probably for the Iseum there, others to be circus turning posts or as sundial pointers.
from the 16th century squares.
The only one
Vatican obelisk. Paris
AD
They were re-discovered
and re-erected
in
One of the obelisks
at
Rome's
day
to survive upright to this
is
the
Luxor was taken
to
between 1831 and 1834. In 1877-78 one of the two
'Cleopatra's Needles'
was taken from Alexandria
London; the other went
to
New York
to
in 1881.
Tallest obelisks
Location
Aswan
Dyn./reign
Ht(m)
Wt(t)
18th Dynasty?
41.75
1168
Lateran
Thutmosis
32.18
455
Karnak
Hatshepsut
29.56
323
Istanbul
Thutmosis
III
28.95
Thutmosis
III
25.37
(unfinished)
Vatican,
Rome
III
Luxor
Ramesses
II
Luxor, Paris
Ramesses
II
Piazza del Popolo,
Mte. Citorio,
Rome
Rome
New York
Thutmosis
Alexandria,
London
Thutmosis
Heliopolis
Senwosret
Karnak
Thutmosis
22.55
227
Opet temple (Karnak)
23.20
235
One
of the last cult buildings of the Ptolemaic period to
be erected
21.79
II
Alexandria,
Tip of the standing obelisk of Hatshepsut at Karnak
25.00
Setyl
Psamtek
331
cult
is
at
Karnak, by Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
II. Its
closely connected with that of the nearby temple of
III
21.21
193
III
20.88
193
Khonsu,
20.41
121
enters the
19.60
143
The temple harks back to an earlier structure of Amenhotep II. It consists of a gateway in a large
I
I
in
which Amun-Re dies
body of Opet-Nut, and
in the is
form of
Osiris,
reborn as Khonsu.
Bibliography: Choisy, L'art de bdtir 121-127; Engelbach, Obelisk;
enclosure wall, a kiosk, a pylon of the Ethiopian period
Reginald Engelbach, The Problem of the Obelisks: From a Study of the
and two courtyards, the
Unfinished Obelisk at
des obelisques,
Ramses
II, in:
in:
Aswan (London
CdE 6(1931) 294-305;
Kemi 5 ( 1935/37) 104-
obelisques de Tanis, in: J.
Yoyotte,
A
Kemi
11
1
14;
18; K.
l'erection
Montet, Les obelisques de
J.
Leclant and
J.
Yoyotte, Les
(1950) 73-84; 14 (1957) 43-91
propos de l'obelisque unique,
M. Verner, Discovery of an Obelisk 1-1
De
Pillet,
P.
Eric Iversen, Obelisks irf Exile, 2 Vols
1 1
M.
1923):
in:
Kemi
14 (1957) 81-91
(Copenhagen 1986/72)
at Abusir, in:
RdE
28 (1976)
Martin, Ein Garantsymbol des Lebens (Hildesheim 1977);
Labib Habachi, The Obelisks of Egypt (London 1978); K. Martin, Obelisk, in: Helck, Obelisks
LA IV 542-545;
(New York
Menu, L'obelisque de
Peter Tompkins, The
1981); Golvin, la
Magic of the
Karnak 127-137; Bernadette
Concorde (Paris 1987).
This
is
followed by the
first
occupied by a further kiosk. building, which
main temple
is
completely preserved and stands on a raised platform,
mound;
probably representing the primeval
ground
is
an Osiris
tomb and
a birth
Interesting features of the temple are
Hathor capitals and window
under-
chamber (crypt).
some composite
grilles.
Bibliography (no available report on the construction): Description III,
Plates 58-64; A. Varille, La
Karnak,
in:
ASAE
grande porte du temple d'Apet a
53 (1955) 79-118; C.
De
Witt, Les incriptions
du
temple d'Opet a Karnak (Brussels 1958-68); Aufrere, L'Egypte restitue'e,
1
17-118; M. Azim,
A
Karnak, in: KarnakVW 51-71.
propos du pylone du temple d'Opet a
Orientation
167
Plan and section of the Opet temple at Karnak
Orientation
Compasses being unknown, the
Egyptian architecture
is
part of a comprehensive set of
was orientated according
relationships determined by the course of the sun, the
the
flow of the Nile and local geographical and historical
subterranean
The entrances of pyramids
conditions.
are orientated
northwards; the sarcophagus in a tomb chamber stands
with the head end facing north; wherever possible,
and tombs
temples
face
the
Nile
,
(from
where
processions and bearers of offerings approach), those on the East east.
Bank
Where
facing west,
and on the West Bank facing
the progress of the Nile or of canals
is
not
axis of buildings
to the position of the stars or
shadow of the sun on the day of foundation,
right angles.
systems probably being arranged
An
at
was symbolically determined by
axis
the king and Seshat, the goddess of measurement;
representations
China, a
of
its
ceremony of 'stretching wooden posts. As in India and
depict the
the rope' between two
gnomon may have been shadow with
determine
the
a
circle
east-west
used, the intersections
being
orientation.
measured Other
to
aids
exactly south-north, as in the Delta, deviations from this
employed would be the Merekhet gnomon and the forked
orientation can be as great as 90°. Temple precincts are
Bayi-palm.
linked with their
following their
own system of processional ways, often own conceptual rules, such as the
connection from the
Karnak
to
Amun
and Mut precincts at Luxor). Birth houses and barque stations
often stand at right angles to the
main
axis.
Approximate measurements were usually regarded as sufficient,
though
greater care
was taken
towards north.
mastabas
are:
in the
Some
pyramids of the 4th Dynasty
in the
accuracy of orientation
deviations observed in pyramids/
Orthostats
168
Pyramid/mastaba
Deviation
Djoser
3° east of north
Meidum
0°24' 25 "west of north
Bent Pyramid
O^
Khufu
0°5'30"
Khafre
0°5'26"
Menkaure
0°14 3" east of north
1
12" west of north
l
Sahure
1°45' west of north
Neferirkare
O^O
Senwosret
1°30' west of north
I
Bibliography:
Instrument,
AEM
ZAS
l'ancienne Egypte et
discussed by
la
J.
les
astronomique dans
L'orientation
precession de l'axe du
Ph. Lauer,
Observations sur
10-17; 48 (1910) 9-17; Clark,
37 (1899)
Zbynek Zaba,
66-68;
east of north
Borchardt, Ein altagyptisches astronomisches
L.
in:
1
monde (Prague
7-15;
pyramides,
Goyon,
G.
in:
BdE 30
Nouvelles
tomb of Sety
I
at
Abydos (view corresponds
to
1953),
(1960) 99-124; Zbynek
G. Vittmann, Orientierung, in: Helck,
in:
observations
pyramide de Kheops,
l'orientation de la
Osiris
drawing)
BIFAO 60 (1960) 171-183; Zbynek Zaba,
Zaba, A propos de l'orientation des grandes pyramides,
(1966)
View over the
in:
RdE
B1E 42/43
relatives
a
(1970) 85-98;
LA IV 607-609;
Josef Dorner,
und astronomische Orientierung agyptischer
Die Absteckung
Pyramiden, Dissertation (Innsbruck 1981); Arnold, Building 15-16; Edwards, Pyramids 97-302; M. 7
(
1991
)
tombs,
Isler,
The Merkhet, in:
Varia Aegyptiaca
53-67; D. Magdalen, On the orientation of Old Barta, Abusir
in:
2000 491-498; M.
Kingdom
royal
Stones
Isler, Sticks,
and
Shadows (forthcoming).
Orthostats Stone slabs standing on end, used to face the lower part of a wall, best
known from
less frequent
in
their use in
Minoan
palaces;
Egypt, one example being the black
basalt orthostats in the
pyramid temple
Osireion, see Osiris
tomb
of Sahure.
Reconstruction of the Osiris tomb of Sety to
I
at
Abydos (view corresponds
photograph)
Osiride, see pillar in the
Osiris
The architectural motif of from the myth according Osiris, scattered over the
a
mound
to
a
the
Amun
of Sety in the
I
Abydos and The only such tomb of
e.g. at Busiris,
far lies in the north-eastern
precinct at at
Osiris stems
whole country, lay buried under
planted with trees,
found so
tomb of
which parts of the body of
on the Abaton near Philae. Osiris
corner of
Karnak, based on the building
Abydos. Kings' tombs were also laid out
form of
sarcophagus chambers of the
tombs, the
tomb
a
tomb
of Osiris: for example, the Bab
el-Hosan in the temple of Mentuhotep, and the
cenotaphs of Senwosret
III
and Ahmose
at
Abydos.
Particularly large-scale developments of this motif exist
large
New Kingdom
kings'
Theban tombs of the Late Period and
the crypts of the pyramid of
Taharqa
at Nuri.
in
The tomb
usually consists of a crypt surrounded by a corridor so that
on
it
is
separated from the rock, like an island. Standing
this 'island'
below a
ceiling
supported on
sarcophagus. Several sarcophagi with a
Osiris are preserved; the motif of a funerary
a raised surface planted with trees In the temple of Hathor at
constructed at a raised Bibliography:
Hermann
is
pillars is the
lid in the
ZAS 52
(
with
occasionally found.
Dendera an
Osiris
tomb was
level.
Junker,
Das Gotterdekret uber das Abaton
(Vienna 1913); E. Naville, Le grand reservoir d'Abydos d'Osiris, in:
shape of
mound
et la
1914) 50-55; Eigner, Grabbauten 163-183.
tombe
p
Pabasa,
An
tomb
of
architecture (mastaba), their imitation in royal tombs,
important Theban tomb of the Late Period (TT 279,
620 BC) in the Assasif reliefs.
c.
Thebes, with interesting wall
at
The superstructure has an
irregular
plan,
nonetheless maintaining the traditional three sections. consists of an entrance room,
The underground complex
sun court, pillared hall and Bibliography: A. Lansing, Eigner, Grabbauten 53;
burial
BMMA
in:
accommodation.
15, Part II (July
on sarcophagi and the depiction of Horus resting on top of the palace facade (niching), bearing the king's
1920) 17-24;
M.A. Nasr, Report on the Restoration of the
numerous
600 BC)
Thebes.
in the Assasif at
the Late Period
has an extensive
It
superstructure with niching, separated by pylons into three sections. Stairs lead central section,
which has
down
to the
sun court,
door recess. Beyond
a
comparable with
later
North African
in the
that are
m
A
palace of Djedkare-Isesi
in
size, I
is
mentioned as
addition to the residential and governmental palaces,
Egyptian religion required
cult palaces for the divine
One type
of cult palace was connected
aspect of the king. to
'houses of millions of years' (Medinet Habu,
Ramesseum, Merenptah, Sety
I),
which were con-
chambers, and the descent
built against the forecourt of the temple,
Bibliography: E. Graefe, Fouilles de l'Assassif,
13-64; E. Graefe, Petihorresnet,
Helck,
in:
in:
CdE 50, No.99
LA IV 994-995;
by
'window of appearances', and provided with
throne hall furnished with a throne dais, as well as living
of
it
a
Memphis. Large parts of the
cult palace
many
important Theban tomb (TT 197) of the Late Period
palace of
(c.
540 BC) in the Assasif at Thebes, consisting of an
have been excavated near Malqata and
in plan,
and a small
brick pyramid taking the place of the traditional third
The underground accommodation
in the order
sun court, pillared
hall, cult
is
arranged
chamber and
Amenhotep
further research.
We
III,
understand
palaces of Akhenaten
complexes
is
including
the large
little
some
Merenptah
An
niched superstructure, irregular
a
to
quarters for the king and his entourage. There are
tomb
are
(1975)
well-preserved remains of a cult palace of
courtyard.
They
being connected
Eigner,
Grabbauten 53-54.
Padineith,
in a
16 x
while the furnishings of a palace of
structed from the time of Hatshepsut onwards.
complex.
1
are described in the Story of Sinuhe. In
two unfinished chambers cut into the rock, with sideto the burial
was
it
where the divine
powers assemble around the Horus king who resides
Senwosret
Monumental Theban tomb (TT 196) of (c.
gates,
closely related to the divine fortress,
palace.
of
name
enclosure
wall and a splendid decorated facade, towers and
630
tomb
a large brick
brick architecture. Right from the beginning
TombofPabasa(TT279),in:M)A/tf41 (1985) 189-196.
Padihorresnet,
had
(serekh). Palaces probably
and the
at
real
cult facilities, still
require
about several
cult
Amarna. Typical of these number of pillared halls and at
throne daises in them. Remains of a palace district of the 13th Dynasty have been found at Tell el-Dab'a in the
burial complex. Bibliography: Eigner, Grabbauten 56-57.
Delta and they include a pillared court, a water supply
,-
system and a garden. Nearby
is
a vast Ramesside palace
Palace
(Per-Ramesses, Tell el-Yahudiya), where lavish
In accordance with the god-like position of the Egyptian
decoration (building ceramics) has been found, with
king, the royal palace
is
religious constructions,
and
it
a
forms the starting point
itself.
All but the
period are
lost
Memphis
is
still
fundamental element of
in the Early
for
Dynastic Period
Egyptian architecture
most meagre remains of palaces of that
(Hierakonpolis; the
attested to in texts).
be envisaged
is
1st
Dynasty palace
at
The only way they can
through their influence on tomb
tiled
workshops.
The actual private accommodation of the king is fairly modest, remains of the Middle and New Kingdoms having
at
most a
slightly
more
extensive plan
and greater
lavishness of decoration than private houses of the
age
(Amenemhat
Amenhotep
III
at
III
at
Dahshur and Bubastis, at Amarna,
Malqata, Akhenaten
Palace facade
170
bathroom
t—1
!
I
bedroom
§
'
I I
I
A: plan of the cult palace of
Merenptah
at
Memphis;
form of a palace of the Early Dynastic Period
Apries
near Ballas and
at Tell
Habu
III
The palace of audience
JNESll (1972) 143-1 55; as a 'ruling machine', in:
37-59;
E. Uphill, P.
in the palace, in:
Assmann,
R.
III
Stadelmann,
Tempelpalast
29 (1973) 221-242; M. Gitton, Le palais de Karnak, (
ZAS
B.
Kemp, The harim-palace
at
und
MDAIK
in:
BIFAO 74
in:
1974) 63-73; B. Kemp, The Palace of Apries at Memphis,
in:
33-105;
The concept of the Egyptian palace
Erscheinungsfenster in den Thebanischen Totentempeln,
33 (1977) 101-08;
MDAIK
in:
Medinet el-Ghurab,
105 (1978) 122-133; D. Arnold, Palast,
in:
Helck,
LA IV
644-646; M. Bietak, Eyie Palastanlage aus der Zeit des spaten Mittleren Reichs, Hiss.
Dynasty D.
in:
Anzeiger der phil.-hist. Klasse der
121 (1984) 325-332; at
Tell
el-Dab'a,
O'Connor, City and palace
urbaines en Egypt
et
M.
Bietak,
in:Bietak, in the
au Sudan
(Lille
A
Oster.
Akad. der
palace of the early 13th
Haus und
New Kingdom
Palast,
Egypt,
in:
73-80; Societes
1989) 73-87; D. O'Connor, Mirror
of the Cosmos: the Palace of Merenptah,
in:
•
I
•
*
'
I
.J ,
I
.
I
^^
I
'
Visage (Memphis, Tenn. 1993) 167-197; Rainer Stadelmann, Temple
palace and residential palace,
The
city
Eds,
Amenhotep
III.
125-172; G. Dreyer,
House and Palace 225-230;
in:
and the world, Perspectives
in: D.
on
O'Connor and E.H.
Umm el-Qaab I (Mainz
Cline,
Reign (Michigan 1998)
his
1998) 6-7.
Palast oder Tempel, in:
Ucko, Ed., Man, Settlement and Vrbanism
721-734;
1972)
J.
I
I
• I
D. O'Connor,
(1925) 50-56; Pendlebury, City of Akhenaten
Holscher, Medinet
(London
early 18th Dynasties
el-Dab'a.
Bibliography: N. de G. Davies,
ZAS 60
and
•
•
festival hall
and Chipiez)
Memphis). Substructures are preserved of
at
fortress-like palaces of the 17th
I
of the royal living quarters in the palace of Malqata; C: sarcophagus of Menkaure in the
B: plan
(after Perrot
i
Fragments of a Shattered
Palace facade, see also niching
A term used
to describe a frequent
motif in Egyptian art
and architecture and one which mainly survived
name
in
It
represents the
royal cult palace of pre-historic times
and the Early
relation to the king's
(serekh).
Dynastic Period (from Naqada
III
projecting towers which flank a three doors.
The
grooves, each of
onwards), having two
gateway with two or
front of each tower
them
is
divided by three
finishing at the top with the motif
of two papyrus plant bundles (possibly representing
Lower Egypt) and there
mats over the
the doors.
mastabas of the
palaces
is
rich decoration in the
The palace motif 1st
is
form of
carried over to
Dynasty, regarded as mortuary
(tomb of 'Menes', Saqqara), and
initially
completely surrounded the complexes. From the end of
Pepy was reduced .to
a
of paving are laid on the foundations
it
the foot of the wall.
was incorporated within the mastaba,
From
highly decorated false door. palace facade
which came
to
on
form of a
in the
the 4th Dynasty, the
the principal element in decoration of
is
particularly large sarcophagi
parallels
pyramid of
and from the 2nd and 3rd Dynasties onwards
the 1st Dynasty the palace facade motif cult area,
I,
and sarcophagus
niches,
be regarded as mortuary palaces. Striking
scroll seals at
Susa and Uruk (IVa-b)
may
and pushed against
The arrangement and shape of the
does not follow a specific pattern and was
dependent on the available material and the progress of the work.
The
final stones
were lowered into place with
the help of ropes passing through notches in the stones. In the Old
Kingdom columns were sunk deep into the column bases were
paving. Paving slabs with integral
stronger than surrounding slabs and overlaid so high
hint at foreign influence. Bibliography: W. Kaiser, Palastfassade,
Winfried Orthmann, Der Alte Orient,
LA IV 646-647;
with bosses that the column base and the foot of the wall
Propylden Kunstgeschichte
could be cut out of one and the same block. Paving slabs
in:
in:
Helck,
(Berlin 1975), Plates 126, 133; Muller, Monumentalarchitektur 10-21; H.S. Smith,
slabs
171
The making of Egypt,
in:
The Followers ofHorus. Studies
main rooms of the Old Kingdom pyramid
in the
temples were of basalt or granite, or very occasionally alabaster, but later they were invariably limestone or
dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman (Oxford 1992) 238-241.
sandstone.
Parennefer,
tomb
A Theban tomb which
is
Bibliography: Jequier,
of the early reign of Akhenaten
(TT
at
Amarna. The
inner parts are unfinished
consist of a transverse hall with eight columns.
Bibliography: N. de G. Davies, Akhenaten at Thebes,
132-152;
S.
Redford,
188 at Thebes,
in:
Two
field-seasons in the
KMT 6.1
in:
Manuel 47-52; Arnold, Building 141-147.
188),
important architecturally as a precursor of the
rock tombs
and
of
]EA 9 (1923)
tomb of Parennefer, No.
Pedamenophis, tomb of The 'mortuary is
the largest
the Late Period.
The brick enclosure wall (measuring 88 x 110 m) was niched. The south-eastern half of the precinct structured
(Spring 1995), 62-70.
Pedamenophis (around 670 BC)
palace' of
Theban tomb (TT 33) of
a
like
is
temple, with three pylons and
courtyards. The vast underground complex consists of a
Paving
sun court with pillared
Stone paving appears as early as the 1st Dynasty royal
chambers and
tombs
at
and 13
Abydos
cm
layer of the
in the
form of granite slabs 2.5
thick. In stone buildings either the
foundations forms the paving, or
m long
topmost
else slabs
door
halls,
recess, two pillared
a complicated set of burial
the form of an Osiris
tomb
apartments
in
m
in
with a corridor, 85
which completely surrounds the tomb. The
length,
vaulted sarcophagus chamber
is
surrounded by 15
recesses in the walls. Bibliography: Johannes Diimichen, Der Grabpalast des Petuamenap (Leipzig 1884); R. Bianchi, Petamenophis,
in:
Helck,
LA IV 991-992;
Eigner, Grabbauten 46-48.
Pelusium (Tell el-Farama) An extensive area of ruins of this once on the Mediterranean coast of the are predominantly late
Roman
important town
Sinai. Its
in date
monuments
- thermal baths
with a water tower, and a well-preserved theatre. Situated in the centre
a large late
is
Roman fort, 200 x 400 m A harbour wall, 300
area with semi-circular towers. long, has
been discovered
Bibliography:
Excavations at al.,
de
recently.
M.A.El-Maqsoud, Tell
el-Farama,
in:
el-Kana'is
I,
1993-1994
Report 3-8; H.
on
the
Jaritz et
(Stuttgart 1996).
pyramid of
The pyramid complex of Pepy of Pepy Endures' for ropes
Preliminary
ASAE 70 ( 1984-85)
Pelusium. Prospection arche'ologique et topographique de la region Tell
Pepy
Lowering a paving stone using channels
in
m
of Djedkare.
lies at
I,
called 'The
Completion
South Saqqara, near the pyramid
The centre of the pyramid has been
so
Pepy
172
Plan of the
I,
pyramid of
tomb of Pedamenophis (TT
33) at Thebes
badly destroyed by stone quarrying that the triple roof of relieving slabs inside
is
visible
on the surface. There
are,
however, remarkable remains of the core structure. The
base of the pyramid height
is
52.40
m
is
78.60
m (150 cubits) long, and
(100 cubits).
traditional layout. Inscribed
Its
its
interior follows the
origines de l'Egypte pharaonique,
in:
Les Dossiers d'Archeologie
146/147 (1990) 52-73; Audran Labrousse, Regards sur une pyramide (Paris 1992);
1999);
Audran Labrousse, Les pyramides des
Audran Labrousse,
L'architecture des
reines (Milan
pyramides a
textes (Cairo
1996), 81, 102, 109-1 10, 117, 120, 132, 140, 159-160, 162, 173, L75.
Pyramid Texts extend along
the length of a 'passage chamber' in the corridor at the
entrance (in this position since the reign of Sahure). The
three-room serdab, which had been the norm up time, has been simplified large
pyramid temple,
down
into a single
to this
room. The
erected according to the pattern
of the 6th Dynasty, was excavated in 1966-88 by a French
mission and received exemplary conservation treatment. Excavation of three queens' pyramids on the south side in progress.
No causeway
found yet; the present-day town of Saqqara has been over the
built
latter.
Bibliography: J.-Ph. Lauer,
ASAE
is
or valley temple have been
(1982) 55-59;
J.
in:
CRAIBL
(1970) 491-503;
J.
Leclant, in:
Leclant, in: Orientalia 51 (1982) 432-433; 52
(1983) 482-483; Stadelmann, Pyramidal 193-195; Saqqara aux
View over the pvramid, Saqqara
cult
pyramid and pyramid temple
ot
Pepy
1
at
Per-Ramesses
Pepy
II,
pyramid of
approached
The pyramid complex of Pepy II,'The Life of (King) Pepy Remains', the last of the Old Kingdom, is situated at the
at
173
both ends by ramps. The valley temple
contained a pillared hall, with two rows of four
pillars,
probably several statue chambers and 12 large magazines.
southern end of the necropolis of Saqqara immediately
Bibliography: Gustave Jequier, Le
next to the Mastabat el-Fara'un (Shepseskaf). The length
Saqqarah, 3 Vols (Cairo 1936, 1938, 1940); Gustave Jequier, Douze ans
of the base of the
pyramid was
78.75
m
(150 cubits),
with a slope of 53°13 and a height of 52.50
m
cubits).
The nucleus of quarried stone was erected
steps.
Due
to
damage
during
in
construction,
de
fouilles
dans
la
monument funeraire de Pepi
II
a
necropole memphite (Neuchatel 1940) 30-131;
(100
Edwards, Pyramids 194-205; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 195-203;
8-9
A. Labrousse, L'architecture des pyramides a textes (Cairo 1996), 134,
the
141,159,161,174.
foundations of the pyramid had to be cased in a stone
mantle 6.50 corridor,
m
deep.
From
the passage chamber, the
antechamber and burial chamber are inscribed
with Pyramid Texts. Each of the long walls of the
m
sarcophagus chamber, 3.15 x 7.90
in size,
from a single piece of stone. Thanks recording,
it
to
were
built
relief
decoration of the
temple. The temple follows the layout
The
pyramid
common in
the 6th
state shrine of
Lower Egypt, formed out of the shrine
of the goddess Wadjet and the Per-nezer. exist;
painstaking
has been possible to restore, in the form of
drawings, some of the
Per-nu, see also Per-wer
our knowledge of
its
form
a) the hieroglyph (Fig., A),
is
No remains
based on:
which shows an upright
rectangular chapel with a vaulted roof and extended
corner posts, and so was probably a structure of
with a reed roof and
mat
wood
hangings; and
Dynasty. The north and south-east corners have been
b) the shape of granite sarcophagi of the Middle
enlarged as pylon-like bastions. The course of the
Kingdom with vaulted lids and raised walls, representing a Per-nu made of brick with a long barrel roof resting on
causeway, 520
m long, and the plan of the valley temple
have been partially reconstructed. The closed facade of the latter
20
m
was erected behind
a terrace, 120
its
side walls. Until the Late Period, the Per-nu generally
m wide and
represented the architecturally symbolic Lower Egyptian
was
counterpart to the Per-wer sanctuary. The 'House of the
high, above the harbour basin, from which
it
North' in the precinct of Djoser
may represent the Per-nu.
Bibliography: Henri Frankfort, Kingship
95-96; Ricke, Bemerkungen
1
and
the
Gods (Chicago 1948)
36-38; Jan Assmann, Das Grab des Basa
(Nr.389) in der thebanischen Nekropole (Mainz D. Arnold, Per-nu, in: Helck,
1973) 32-34;
LA IV 932-933.
Hieroglyph and reconstruction of the Lower Egyptian Per-nu
Per-Ramesses (Pi-Ramesse, Qantir) Plan of the pyramid complex of Pepy
II
at
Saqqara
(after G. Jequier
The Delta residence of the Ramesside kings south-west of Qantir on the Pelusian arm of the Nile. It was formerly
Per-wer
174
one of the largest Egyptian palace and temple complexes (1000 hectares), now completely flattened and partially built over.
The palace was founded by Sety
extended by Ramesses
Dynasty
it
and
II
I
and
his successors. In the 21st
was abandoned when the harbour became
silted up; the residence
moved
Tanis and
to
building
its
materials were transported there and to Bubastis Several large temples are recorded; the position of the
main temple dedicated to Amun-Horakhty-Atum to
have been
at the centre
likely
is
of the area. In front of the
facade were four colossal statues of Ramesses
21
II,
m
high, fragments of which were later used in the temple of
The temple of Seth
Tanis.
south was probably
in the
identical with the temple of Seth at
nearby Avaris
Dab'a). Situated in the east was an Astarte temple and there
was a Wadjet temple
and columns, 12
m
buildings erected by Ramesses festivals.
A very impressive
Per-Ramesses, equipped with obelisks,
festival hall at
statue groups
in the north.
high, II
Tile inlays
III.
Per-weru The 'House of the Great Ones'
refers to the elongated
pyramid
east-west entrance hall of the court of
was among the
temples. Early forerunners are to be found in the lower
many
temple of the Bent Pyramid and the pyramid temples of
for his
sed-
There were probably also sed-festival complexes
of Ramesses
Hieroglyph and reconstruction of the Upper Egyptian Per-wer
(Tell el-
from the architectural
Khafre and Menkaure. From the 5th Dynasty, the dimensions became standardised, usually width 5.25 m,
m and height 6.80 m, and roofed with a barrel
decoration of the palace have been preserved (building/
length 21
architectural ceramics). Military workshops have been
vault of stone, constructed of two semi-arched sections
found
around the palace.
in the area
Bibliography: William C. Hayes, Glazed Tiles from a Palace of Ramesses II at
Kantir (New York 1937); M. Bietak, Ramsesstadt,
128-146;
E.P. Uphill,
Hauptkampagne
(1989) 67-90; E.B. Pusch, Recent work
and
Helck,
LA V
The Temples of Per Ramesses (Warminster 1984);
E.B. Pusch, Bericht iiber die 6.
E. Bleiberg
in:
R. Freed, Eds,
(Memphis 1991) 199-220;
E.
at
in Qantir, in:
GM 112
Northern Piramesse,
in:
Fragments of a Shattered Visage
Pusch, Towards a
map
of Piramesse,
in:
Egyptian Archaeology 14 (1999) 13-15.
meeting
in the middle.
window
slits
structure
in the
may have
The
through
hall received light
tympana of
The
the short sides.
represented a festival tent in the
palace courtyard for celebrating various cult festivals; the decorative
programme
includes, for example, a
hippopotamus hunt. Statues of kneeling enemies are likely to
also
have been displayed here.
Bibliography: Paule Posener-Krieger, Les Papyrus d'Abusir
1976) 496-499; D.Arnold, Rituale und Pyramidentempel,
33 (1977) 6-7; Arnold, The Pyramid ofSenwosret
1,
II
in:
(Cairo
MDA1K
42-43.
Per-wer, see also Per-nu
The shrine of the ancestral kings and of Nekhbet, Upper Egypt's tutelary goddess,
Upper Egypt plex
is
at
and
Hierakonpolis. The structure of the com-
(A). Originally
it
may have been its
front
a king's tent constructed
adorned with
cattle
typical rounded, vault-like roof; the facade
or flagpoles. its
Petosiris,
see Tuna el-Gebel
preserved in the hieroglyph marked in the figure
of reed matting,
In
Peripteral temple, see ambulatory temple
also the State shrine of
had two masts
The temenos was surrounded by a low
architectural symbolism, the Per-wer
Upper Egyptian counterpart
to the
The Per-wer type may be represented
is
fence.
the normal
Per-nu sanctuary. in the
Pharos, see Alexandria
horns and a
'House of the
Philae
The
site
of a famous shrine to
to Philae.
evidence of an
95-96; Ricke, Bemerkungen
I
the
Gods (Chicago 1948)
27-36; Arnold, Per-wer,
in:
Helck,
LA
IV
934-935; Klaus Peter Kuhlmann, Serif-style architecture and the design of the archaic Egyptian palace,
in:
Bietak,
House and Palace
1
17-137.
to
was
at
to the south
Elephantine, but from the Ptolemaic period
An
altar
and some
Amun
(size
Kingdom
the
South' in the Djoser precinct. Such a structure's remains
and
on an island
the Old
are thought to have been found at Hierakonpolis. Bibliography: Henri Frankfort, Kingship
Isis built
m) south of Aswan. From New Kingdom Egypt's gateway
140 x 460
it
gravitated
relief
blocks of Taharqa are
cult in the
25th Dynasty, while
remains of a kiosk of Psamtek
from a temple of Amasis
II
and 300 re-used blocks
testify to a cult of Isis in the
Dynasty. The earliest preserved structure
still
26th
standing
dates from as late as the reign of Nectanebo
I,
who
Philae
175
1
'
Composite
The western colonnade
in front of the
temple of
Isis at
Due
southern point and a barque
and the
at the
station on a platform high over the Nile. The barque station
an elegant porticus of 14 columns with an
is
interesting
combination of composite and Hathor-
capital columns.
Two obelisks added
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
due
to the
II
in the reign of
attained special significance
double inscriptions in hieroglyphic and Greek
on them, used by Champollion
in the
decipherment of
hieroglyphic script. Nectanebo Is plan included a processional
way and
a large temple with an entrance pylon,
but only the gateway in the
first
pylon became a
The programme of construction, Isis
temple with
its
two 20 and 13
not taken forward until the reigns
Ptolemy
III.
The lack of
reality.
particularly for the
m
high pylons, was
of Ptolemy
II
and
available space resulted in an
interesting spatial combination of forecourt,
pronaos and
hypostyle whose lightness and elegance of proportions is
joined by screen walls, of the kiosk of Nectanebo
I
at
to the international popularity of the cult of Isis site's
significance
monuments were added
on the Nubian border, further in the
Roman
period: the two
long colonnades flanking the processional way and the
famous kiosk were erected
in the reign of
Augustus,
creating an east-west processional axis to the
temple.
A monumental
gateway
main with
at the north-east
up from the Nile was added under the
stairs leading
emperor Hadrian. The temples were by brick buildings
for the
closely
surrounded
accommodation of the
cult
personnel and pilgrims.
The
latest datable
from
as a whole), inscription,
from
hieroglyphic inscription (in Egypt
AD
394,
and the
latest
demotic
AD 452 are found here. After the closure
of the temple by Justinian (535-37 AD), Christianity took over, represented
by four churches. The monuments
remained almost undamaged into the 19th century, but in 1910 Philae
was flooded by the old Aswan
reservoir.
Threatened by the formation of Lake Nasser, the main
thought to indicate some Hellenistic influence.
Behind the first pylon lies one of the most beautiful and completely preserved birth houses in Egypt, dating
from the reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
-
'
Philae (after Prisse d'Avennes, Plate 47)
Philae
conceived the overall plan of the complex, beginning with landing stairs
pillars,
-
buildings were removed between 1972 and 1980 to the
neighbouring island of Agilkia.
triple-
Bibliography
which
d'Avennes, Histoire, Plates 24-25, 27, 47, 58-60; Georges A.
supported a canopy-like protective roof over the sanctuary.
Benedite, Le temple de Philae (Paris 1893-95); L. Borchardt, Der
room sanctuary has
II; its
a pronaos with a colonnade
(selected):
Description
I,
Plates
1-29;
Prisse
176
engaged
Pilaster,
Augustustempel
auf
Philae,
pillar
Jahrbuch
in:
Deutschen
des
Archaologischen Institute 18 (Berlin 1903) 73-90; H.B. Lyons,
Report on the Island and Temples of Philae (Cairo 1908); Philae, in: Textes et
Reused blocks from the temple of Amasis
Antiquus 16 (1977) 315-324;
Nectanebos
I
found
Farag
S.
at Philae island, in:
147-152; Serge Sauneron and Henri
Agyptens (Zurich and Freiburg e Roccati, File. Storia e vita di
Winter, Philae,
in:
E. Winter,
Langages (Cairo 1972) 229-237: W. Macquitty,
Island oflsis. Philae, Temple of the Nile (London 1976); al.,
A
Helck,
i.
Br.
Farag
Oriens Antiquus 17 (1978)
Stierlin,
Die letzten Tempel
1978) 139-173;A.Giammarusti
G. Haeny,
A
BIFAO 85 (1985) 197-233;
E.
see a/so column, djed pillar, heraldic statue pillar
pillar, relief pillar,
A
vertical support structure, rectangular, square or
some derived forms
octagonal in cross-section; polygonal.
There
several
are
a) Simple,
undecorated square
made of Khufu and Userkaf,
valley temple of Khafre, Osireion of Sety or quartzite (Pepy
II),
I at
Abydos)
often having vertical areas of
Mentuhotep temple)
inscriptions (Userkaf 's at El-Tod, or depictions of plants in raised
Eleni
latter are lotus
Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 34
are
which
types,
pillars, usually
granite (pyramid temples of
short
relief.
Examples of the
bundles (Zawyet el-Mayitin) and the two
heraldic pillars
prominent form
(Louvain 1989).
basic
underwent many changes over time:
Reused blocks of
un santuario egizio (Novara, 1980);
architectural history of Philae, in:
et
Oriens
at Philae, in:
et al.,
LA IV 1022-1027;
Vassilika, Ptolemaic Philae,
S.
Pillar,
in the
Amun
precinct at Karnak.
in architecture
is
A less
the djed pillar, a
derivation of primeval fetishes.
engaged
Pilaster,
An engaged
pillar,
pier topped
by
see also anta
b) Square pillars topped with a cavetto cornice,
a cavetto cornice, serving to
support the architrave which continues beyond a row of pillars or
columns
into the wall, for
court of the temple of Ramesses
tomb No.
16 at
structures in
Amarna.
example
III at
Pilasters
in the first
Medinet Habu,
or
their surfaces decorated with reliefs. This
common: an example Amenhotep
1st
Dynasty
(Abydos, Saqqara, Giza) as stout buttress-like
piers,
c)
the
Djoser precinct serve
same purpose.
Bibliography: Jequier,
Four principal types of Egyptian D: polygonal
pillar,
similar to a
pillar.
column
Square
symbols of
the
form
is
less
temple of
Karnak, between the ninth and tenth
pillars
whose surfaces
are decorated with
plants, etc., in raised relief (relief pillar,
d) Octagonal pillars with a base,
bands of in
the
inscriptions,
11th
made
abacus and
vertical
of sandstone and frequent
Dynasty (Beni Hasan, Elephantine,
Mentuhotep). An early form
Manuel 161-165.
in
heraldic pillar).
serving to reduce the span to be covered by beams. The pilasters in the entrance hall of the
seen
pylons.
appear in brick
burial chambers of the
II at
is
exists
in the
pyramid
A: pillar with square or rectangular section; B: pillar with cavetto cornice above; C: octagonal pillar;
(also channelled)
Planning temple of Pepy
Akhtihotep e)
From
at
I
and the mastaba of Ptahhotep and
Saqqara (5th/early 6th Dynasty).
the 12th Dynasty onwards, pillars with a
Pithom (Tell el-Maskhuta) A town and fortress in Wadi Exodus
1:11
was
it
polygonal cross-section (16-32 corners, channelled
Pithom was reinforced by Nekho
column), having a base and abacus (Amada, Beni
his
Hasan, Buhen, Beit el-Wali, Hatshepsut, Semna).
attacks by Nebuchadnezzar.
Smoothed forms (Sety I to
at
Abydos) represent a transition
columns. f)
From
form of the Hathor pillar (Serabit
Khadim). The form (statue Bibliography: in:
des
Helck, Ibi.
project
Bibliography: Edouard Naville,
The
pillar
with an attached statue
is
el-
a special
LD
I
127; Jequier,
K.
Manuel 151-165;
pyramide de Pepi
Un nouveau I
(Malibu 1982);
Paice et
P.
Holladay,
Tell
Store-City of Pithom and the
Helck,
LA III
D. Redford,
Pithom,
in:
The Middle Bronze Age/Second
al.,
Intermediate Period houses
with
withstand
at Tell
el-Maskhuta, m: Bietak, Haus
D. Arnold, Pfeiler,
Kuhlmann and W. Schenkel, Das Grab
Theben No.36, (Mainz 1983), Vol.
91-94; G. Goyon,
S.
in order to
undPalast, 159-173.
pillar).
LA IV 1008- 1009;
IV 1054-1058; John
and
Israelites.
in association
II
el-Maskhuta. Cities of the Delta
Route of the Exodus (London 1903);
the 12th Dynasty, pillars were often modified
to take the
Wadi Tumilat canal
Tumilat. According to
by the oppressed
built
177
1,
Figs 8, 13; Vol. 2, Plates 33,
type de colonne egyptienne dans
a Saqqarah, in:
SAK
la
Planning, see also construction plans Most Egyptian buildings
are the product of innumerable
changes of plan conceived while construction was in progress, usually concerning extensions (Mentuhotep,
14 (1987) 99-106.
Hatshepsut, Soleb). The reason was not so much that the architects
had no basic concept
in
mind, but because
of the almost limitless possibilities and ever greater
demands made by their king's
tomb
masters. Planning the layout of a
started immediately
on
his accession to the
throne. In drawing
up measurements, both
detailed, Egyptian
architects preferred to use
cubits
( 1
= c. 52.5 cm
cubit
and
overall
whole
although fractions (1/2, 1/4
),
or as expressed in hands or fingers) were unavoidable.
etc. It is
likely that construction plans
building ground using a
were used
were produced using a
would be transferred
grid arranged in cubits which
1:1 scale.
to the
Similar grid systems
The
of wall decoration.
for the transfer
meaning of some traditional or otherwise 'sacred' systems of measurement or numbers is not fully understood. The employment of the Pythagorean formula (3:4:5) has been suggested in a few cases (perhaps starting with Djoser). Whether the proportion 5:8 (in the Fibonacci series)
was used
measurements
calculation of
precinct of the Middle
for a
is
The
uncertain.
complete pyramid
Kingdom appears
to
have been
based on the crossing points of the axes of the pyramid (based on squares of 150, 180 and 220 cubits). In the Ptolemaic period, planning using a
modulus
originating in Hellenistic architecture was introduced into Egyptian architecture,
worked out no longer Royal statue pillar in the festival court of the temple of Ramesses
Medinet Habu
III at
measurements then being
in cubits but
a larger
measurement. Special numerical
been proposed; however, the bad Pillared hall, see hypostyle hall
ratios
have
state of preservation
and inexact recording of buildings renders working with such numbers
Piramesse, see Per-Ramesses
employing a modulus
calculated individually for every building as a fraction of
Bibliography:
difficult.
J.P.
Mayer-Astmc, Trigonometric pharaonique,
in:
CdE
72 (1961) 321-328; A. Badawy, The harmonic system of architectural
Plaster
178
design in ancient Egypt,
MIO 8,1
in:
Egyptian architectural design.
A
(1963) 1-14; A. Badawy, Ancient
study of the harmonic system
(Berkeley 1965); D. Arnold, GrundriE,
105-124;
Donadoni, Plan,
S.
Helck,
in:
Pyramide oder Pyramidenstumpf?,
F.W. Hinkel,
in:
LA
II
ZAS
914-915;
108 (1981)
LA IV 1058-1059; von Naredi-
Helck,
und Harmonie,
Rainer, Architektur
in:
Zahl,
Mafi und Proportion
in
(Cologne 1984); Arnold, Building 7-22;
mittelalterlicher Architektur
F.W. Hinkel.The Process of Planning in Meroitic Architecture, in:
Egypt
in Africa
(London 1991)
von Kalabscha,
MDAIK
in:
1
10-233; Karl Georg Siegler, Die Tore
25 (1969) 139-153; Karl Georg
Siegler,
Kalabscha (Berlin 1970) passim; W. Meyer-Christian, Der 'Pythagoras' in
am
Agypten
Beginn des Alten Reiches,
in:
MDAIK
43 (1986)
195-203; G. Robins, Composition and the artists squared grid,
JARCE 28
in:
(1991) 41-54; H.R. Butler, Egyptian Pyramid Geometry
(Missisauga 1998).
see also mortar
Plaster,
A very pliable but quick-setting mixture of gypsum, sand and
water.
It
was used
in
Egyptian architecture from the
Old Kingdom onwards for repairing walls and providing a
smooth surface
as a preparation for painting.
It
was
also
occasionally used to repair reliefs or as a binding agent for repair stones
does not
and pegs. Ornamental plasterwork, however,
exist.
A
Bibliography:
Lucas, Mistakes in chemical matters frequently
JEA 10 (1924) 128-131; Lucas,
in archaeology, in:
AEMI
made
76-79;
Reconstruction of the podium and avenue of sphinxes before the
pylon
at
Karnak
(after
J.
LA VI 87-92.
R. Fuchs, Stuck, in: Helck,
Plinth,
see also base, column base columns and pillars,
Platform,
podium
A
When
images and the barques of gods emerged
distinctly separate
cult
first
Lauffray)
rectangular base for
from other paving
not always
slabs, as in the
from a temple they were placed on walled platforms
temple of Mentuhotep, court of the pyramid temple
on the bank of the Nile or a
of Senwosret
The
canal.
front of the platform
protrudes, bastion-like, towards the canal. Side walls are often, though not necessarily,
down
to the water,
being
left
at
of
stairs
open, for example in front of the
first
(Amun precinct), and at El-Tod, the temple Khnum and Satet at Elephantine, and at Dendur). wall supporting the terrace
river
is
some
in
on the
side facing the
cases concave, probably in order to
withstand pressure (as
Elephantine, and
at
at the
temple of
Philae,
Khnum and
Satet
Dendur and Kalabsha).
In later times, these platforms were used for meetings
of cult communities. distant
The platform may represent
successor of the Old and Middle
a
Kingdom
J.
Lauffray,
Karnak. Le dromos,
Karnak IV 77- 1 3 1 in:
Karnak
Helck,
L4
V
III
;
la
C.
Abords occidentaux du premier pylone de
tribune et les
Traunecker
amenagements
et al.,
portuaires, in:
La tribune du quai de Karnak,
43-76; ]arilz,Terrassen; W. Schenkel, Kai-Anlage,
293-295.
temple of Sety its
I at
own
Abydos, and temple
foundations and was
carved out of a single block together with the column or pillar base.
Podium, see platform Porphyry Unstratified or igneous rock with dispersed crystals in a
homogeneous base matrix, ranging in colour from black to pink to purple. It was used from pre-historic times onwards in the manufacture of stone vessels, mace heads, and so on, but it was not used by sculptors until the Graeco-Roman period. Mining of the 'imperial porphyry' for
valley temple. Bibliography:
I,
often has
It
pylon
Karnak
The
at
accompanied by
with the rear (which faced the temple)
of Edfu.
in:
start of the
Roman
construction projects began at the
2nd century
AD
at
Gebel Dukhan (Mons
Porphyrites on the Red Sea). Pliny's claim that
used in the manufacture of columns
(Amenemhat doubtful.
III,
pyramid
at
for the
it
was
Labyrinth
Hawara) appears rather
Primeval Bibliography: Pliny, Naturalis Historia 36, 13 in:
421-22;
Porphyr,
B. Bianchi,
Pierres 119-21;
(
in:
Helck,
Primeval
The concept of
416-418,
LA IV 1071-1073; De
Putter,
Klemm, Steine 379-395; Nicholson, Materials 48-49.
179
mound
Andrew, On the
AEMI
19); G.
BIE 20 (1938) 63-81; Lucas,
Imperial Porphyry,
mound
a
mound,
or island of the
'first
time',
which emerged from the primeval ocean (nun) at creation, had a special significance in Egyptian religion
and architectural symbolism, conditioned by the Portcullis
A
phenomenon
device consisting of stone slabs lowered into a
tomb
inundation.
It
annual
the
of also
retreat
corridor to block the entrance, the earliest instances
similarly shaped
being found in the mastabas of the
Shrines of the Early Dynastic Period
Saqqara and Bet Khallaf. Bent Pyramid onwards, where
it
found
rollers
the Middle
Dynasty
at
Kingdom, from the
in all kings'
consists of three slabs close together,
lowered on
From
In the Old
it is
1st
tombs,
which were
(pyramids of Khufu and Menkaure).
Kingdom
it
becomes
less
frequent,
of
the
had a secondary connection
Nile to the
mound of the Osiris tomb (symbolism). may also have
stood on real or
mounds. Pyramids too same concept, as may also be
artificial
possibly related to the
core structure of the temple of
are
the
Mentuhotep. The
enclosure wall around the tomb of Montuemhat surrounds a primeval
mound
of 60 x 60 cubits. In
being replaced by sliding blocks, which are more
other tombs of the Late Period, at the centre of the
remove. The portcullis in the mastaba of
tomb chamber, surrounded by a corridor, a block of stone is marked as the primeval mound (Harwa, Pedamenophis, Bakenrenef). The concept of a mound may have been realised inside the pyramid of Senwosret II. The existence of primeval mounds at
difficult to
Senwosretankh prevent
it
portcullis
is
equipped with barbed hooks
to
being pushed back up. Practically every
was
either avoided, levered
up or tunnelled
through by tomb robbers. Bibliography: Arnold, Building 223-228.
several
towns
is
known from documents, although not Memphis,
attested to archaeologically (Heliopolis,
Positional marks, see control notes
Hermopolis).
Reconstruction of the portcullis system of the pyramid of Khufu in open and closed positions
tomb
Private
180
Bibliography:
Adriaan de Buck, De Egyptische
Voorstellingen
betreffende den Oerheuvel (Leiden 1922); Abdel-Aziz Saleh,
and other
called 'primeval
hill'
mythology,
MDAIK
in:
d'Egypte,
in:
so-
related elevations in ancient Egyptian
25 (1969) 110-120;
Monnet
J.
BIFAO 83
Grabbauten 178-80; K. Martin, Urhugel,
263-296;
(1983) in:
la
Height
Depth
(m)
(m)
(m)
Columns
(post-
pottery Eigner,
Width
Kom Ombo
Saleh, Les
representations de temples sur plates-formes a pieux, de
gerzeenne
The
Ptolemy VI)
17
3x5
14.98
20.2
4x6
24.5
?
9.4
2x4
22.68
c.7
c.6.3
2x8
22.61
12.26
14.95
2x4
18.65
7.40
6.38
2x4
c.40
c.
37.36
14
c.
Esna
Helck.IA VI 873-875.
(Claudius)
El-Tod
Private tomb, see a/so mastaba, rock
tomb
(Ptolemy VII)
Ehnasya
Pronaos
el-Medina
Called khentis in Egyptian, a pillared hall before the
body of front.
a temple, either half or completely
court (Luxor,
Month
examples occur
The
precinct, Soleb). I
in
(Ramesses
II)
Kalabsha
III
of the columned
at the rear
the temples of Sety
at
at the
Amenhotep
Early forms, from the time of
onwards, develop into a hall
open
(Augustus)
Hibis temple
earliest true
(Saite)
Wadi Miya, of /
Ramesses El-Hiba.
II at
Its
Ehnasya el-Medina and of Sheshonq
at
Bibliography:
peak period of use began in the 30th
Dynasty and continued under the Ptolemies and the
Romans tallest
(see
list
below). The pronaos
part of the building and
temple building with a closed latters cavetto cornice.
may
is
in Gustave Jequier, Architecture et Ill
(Paris 1924); Dieter Kurth,
Die Dekoration der Saulen des Tempels von Edfu (Hildesheim 1983);
frequently the
D. Arnold,
enclose an existing
front, its roof resting
Good examples
decoration dans I'ancienne Egypte,\'o\.
Zur Rekonstruktion des Pronaos von Hermopolis,
MDAIK 50 (1994)
in:
13-22.
on the
Intercolumnar spaces are half
Proportion, see planning
closed by screen walls and side walls are closed completely.
The
central entrance leads through a screen
Protodoric columns
wall with an interrupted architrave. Equipped with
A
sumptuous composite columns and
pillars,
a rich decorative
programme, the pronaos forms the high point of
late
misleading term applied to polygonal channelled
common
which are
Egypt from the 12th
in
Dynasty onwards (Beni Hasan);
similarities with the
Egyptian temple architecture. Acting partly as a barque
Doric order of columns have been wrongly used to
station and partly as a place where the divine images
demonstrate the dependence of Greek architecture on
were assembled,
it
probably took on the function of the
earlier hypostyle hall,
which had started
Egypt.
to decline in use
Bibliography: Perrot, L'Egypte 549-551;
from the Late Period onwards.
dorique
et l'Egypte.
Flambeau 37 (Brussels 1954) 699-705; Larger pronaoi
in:
Width
Height
Depth
(m)
(m)
(m)
Columns
Akhmim (
(Ptolemy IV?)
86.00
c.26
c.30
4x10
Arrhidaeus)
Antaeopolis (Ptolemy VI)
57.75
18.375
21.00
2x6
45.30
Le
in:
Paestum et l'Egypte,
small temple precinct north of the temple of
Amun
Amun precinct). The original small triple-cell structure
was dedicated by Thutmosis and
III,
with two polygonal
a small forecourt
which appears
Karnak was
large enclosure wall of
built,
it
When
to
the
cut through
the northern part of the precinct. In the reign of
c
15.25
?
3x6
Ptolemy cult
42.60
18.05
26.00
4x6
40.55
15.674
18.705
3x6
Edfu (Ptolemy VIII)
Gilbert,
have been roofed in the Ramesside period.
Dendera (Tiberius)
P.
Phoibos 3/4 (Brussels 1948/49, 1949/50).
pillars in front
(Philip
Gilbert, L'architecture
Ptah, temple of (Karnak)
A
Hermopolis
P.
Impressions d'un Egyptologue en Grece,
III
a small
pylon with rooms
equipment was added
for the storage of
in front. Against its facade
is
a
kiosk with beautiful composite capital columns. In front of the kiosk,
on the processional avenue, Shabaka
erected his serf-festival gate B, as well as gate D.
Ptolemy VI Philometor
I
added gate
A and
Ptolemy XIII
Ptah, temple of (Memphis)
Neos Dionysos gate are
still
C.
181
The stone elements of the complex
completely preserved.
Bibliography: Georges Legrain, Temple de Ptah ris-anbou-f dans
Thebes, Ptah,
in:
ASAE
ASAE
in:
3 (1902) 38-66, 97-114; H. Chevrier,
53 (1956) 18-19, Plates
9,
11;
Temple de
Haeny, Basilikale
Anlagen 10-11,83-84.
Ptah,
One In
temple of (Memphis)
of the earliest and most important shrines in Egypt.
the
Ptolemaic period
was surrounded by
it
a
trapezoidal brick wall measuring 410 x 580 x 480 x
630 m. The area inside was divided
by the
in four
main
intersection of the axes of the temple, with the
gates facing the four points of the compass. All that
now
visible are the
Ramesses
II
consisting of a stone pylon, 74
m wide, with
Many blocks
of the Old
and Middle Kingdoms were re-used. Behind Hall', a
sisting of four
all
the
lies
monumental hypostyle hall con-
m
rows of papyrus columns, 13
surrounded on
is
remains of the western approach of
four colossal statues of the king.
'Western
gateway
sides
high,
by a double row of smaller
columns. The hypostyle hall leads to the central part of
Ramesses
II
on the north
added axis
Plan of the Ptah precinct
columned
the temple, starting with an open
a forecourt with a pylon to the
Ptolemies, especially
Amenhotep
Kingdom
III
the
to
and Ramesses
II,
sought to immortalise themselves in the main part of
square in front of the station in Cairo).
sphinx of the New Kingdom, now
and
colossal statues.
granite gateway of Ptolemy IV are
all
Remains of that
is
left
a
of
came from
gardens,
Dynasty. pillars, 6 bull.
Amenemhat
bulls, a
originally several colossal statues of
now
within a
museum on
the
site,
Ramesses
II
and another
(one
in the
museum
behind the
a forecourt situated
In the south-west corner of the precinct
remains of statues and a re-used architrave of In front of the southern gate there were
alabaster
nearby
temple of Apis, no longer preserved, erected
structures in the eastern wall. At the northern gate are
III.
A huge
in the
south gate.
the temple by erecting sanctuaries, pillared halls, forecourts, pylons
Memphis
temple
and renewed the sanctuary of Ptah. All
the great builders, from the Old
at
facade.
26th
Its
courtyard, surrounded by halls and statue
m
high, served as exercise area for the sacred
Nearby was the embalming hall
for the sacred
simple brick building dating from the reign of
Nectanebo
II.
A
processional way, with sphinxes, chapels
and other monuments led from there the
was the
in the
to the
catacombs of
Serapeum. Still
standing in front of the south wall of the Ptah
precinct
is
a Hathor temple, which
decaying in the sub-
is
soil water. Bibliography: Herodotus, History
II,
Book
176; Strabo,
Book XVII, 31-32; Rudolf Anthes, Mit Rahineh 1955
Geographka, (Philadelphia
1959); Rudolf Anthes, Mit Rahineh 1956 (Philadelphia 1965); Marion T.
Dimick, Memphis, the City of the White Wall (Philadelphia 1956);
Haeny, Basilikale Anlagen, 68-70; H.S. Smith, A Life
of Memphis and Saqqara 500-30
Saved
Mahmud, A New Temple for Hathor
1978); D.G.Jeffreys, The Survey of Memphis
The Monuments recorded by Alice Lieder
Memphis View of the area of the temple of Ptah
at
Memphis Western (
Hall)
J.
in
May
1853, in:
Visit to
BC (London at I
Ancient Egypt:
1974); Abdulla
el
Memphis (Warminster
(London 1985); J.Malek,
in the
'Temple of Vulcan'
at
JEA 72 (1986) 101-112; D.G. Jeffreys and
Malek, Memphis 1986, 1987,
in:
JEA 74 (1988) 15-29;
L.L. Giddy,
Ptahhotep and Akhtihotep, tomb of
182
D.J. Jeffreys
and
J.
Malek, Memphis, 1989,
JEA 76 (1990) 4-11;
in:
K.A. Kitchen, Towards a reconstruction of Ramesside Memphis,
in:
Fragments of a Shattered Visage (Memphis, Tenn. 1991) 87-92; L.
Giddy, The Ptah Temple Complex, Memphis: 1992 Season,
in:
Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology 5 (1994) 27-35.
construction history: the earliest part corner,
25 x 26
m
in size,
entered through a
famous
antechamber with a large statue shrine and Behind
this
is
It
is
leads into an a serdab.
a pillared hall with four octagonal pillars
from which the two mortuary offering chapels of Ptahhotep and Akhtihotep are reached (false door,
The
large burial area has not
been investigated, and no
structural investigation of the double
been carried
Fig.).
mastaba has
yet
out.
Tomb of Ptah-hetep
(London 1898); N. de Garis Davies, The Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep, 2 Vols
(
London 1900-01 ); Selim Hassan, Mastabas ofNy-
ankh-Pepy and Others. Excavations at Saqqara, 1937-1938,
Vol. 2
columns preserved
lotus
the
in
a statue temple with three statue shrines set at a higher
The southern section of the complex
occupied by
is
a pillared court of temple-like dimensions, with a
door
recess which leads to the three statue chambers. In the
south-west corner for
two 23
chamber with
a
is
a
curved side wall
m long funerary boats. The canopic recess in
the burial complex
protected by a roof of relieving
is
m high. The plan may have been influenced by
slabs, 3.3
the nearby royal
pyramid temple.
Bibliography: Preliminary Report on Czechoslovak Excavations in the
Mastaba of Ptahshepses at Abusir (Prague 1976); Miroslav Yerner, Abusir
The Mastaba of Ptahshepses. The
I,
Miroslav Verner, Abusir
Bibliography: R.F. Paget and A.A. Pirie, The
the north-west
entrance chamber are rare examples of this type. Behind is
for its excellent reliefs.
door recess which
is
extended to the east and south.
later
The magnificent
level.
Ptahhotep and Akhtihotep, tomb of A mastaba of the 5th to early 6th Dynasty at Saqqara, c.
which was
II,
Reliefs
(Prague 1977);
Baugrajfiti jder Ptahschepses
Mastaba
(Prague 1992); M. Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids, Abusir (Prague 1994) 173-192; M. Balik and restitution of the Ptahshepses'
mastaba
B.
Vachala,
The
scientific
at Abusir, in: Barta,
Abusir
2000,317-330.
(Cairo 1975) 25-84.
Ptahshepses (Shepsesptah), tomb of largest mastaba at Abusir, measuring
The
42.24 x
56.24 m, and a first-rank structure of the reign of Niuserre. The tomb has a complex plan and a tangled
Plan of the mastaba of Ptahshepses, showing construction phases
Puyemre, tomb of The burial place of Puyemre
at
Thebes (TT
39),
who
is
believed to have been the builder of the temple of
Hatshepsut,
is
one of the most important tombs of the
reign of Thutmosis reliefs.
and
A
six
III
and
is
decorated with magnificent
forecourt with a portico of columns, two stelae false
doors
is
followed by a magnificently
appointed transverse hall within the rock. Opening on the latter are three parallel chapels, each one representing a different type of structure (multiple shrine, Fig., D).
That to the north has a black-painted door frame and Entrance portico of the mastaba of Ptahshepses capital lotus
columns
at Abusir,
with closed-
artistically
and there
designed skylight; the ceiling inside is
is
vaulted
a false door in the rear wall similar to the
)
Pyramid mortuary offering
hall of the
Hatshepsut temple. The
two-room chapel has a wall niche
central
group and depictions of ceiling.
The southern chapel has
Sample dimensions of pylons Width
for a statue
doors on the vaulted
false
a vaulted ceiling
which
m
(
Depth
)
(
m
Height
)
I
122
15
II
100
13.9
in the rear wall.
III
97
12.6
IV
63
10.6
VII
63.7
11.0
VIII
48.0
9.4
IX
65.5
11.0
X
66.7
11.7
Temple of Khonsu
34.5
7.0
60.0
?
?
(New York
Norman de
Garis Davies, The
Tomb ofPuyemre, 2
Vols
1923).
Pylon The Greek word pylon means a 'large entrance gateway or gate building'. Pylons
sloping outer surface
New Kingdom,
formed of twin towers with a
and
a cavetto
cornice are typical
in
(
Sety I,Abydos
43.5
18
Edfu
79
11
36
Medinet Habu
65
11
24
temples. The earliest examples of pylons in front of a
Luxor
64.25
8.4
courtyard appear in the 11th Dynasty. From the early
Philae
38
6.8
18
18th Dynasty onwards, they form a temple facade
Kalabsha
34.27
6.43
16.5
the
prototypes being found in the corner
sections of the Old
and Middle Kingdom pyramid
closely linked to the courtyard beyond. in the
New Kingdom when
the pylon
and
are
The passage through
wooden
doors, in
the pylon
some
is
25
The form changes is
equipped with
securing devices for the flagpoles which tower over it.
closed with heavy
cases decorated with copper
Bibliography: Jequier,
Manuel 65-76;
Dombardt, Der
T.
Tempelpylon altagyptischer Baukunst und seine
(New York
1933);
Holscher, Der erste
U.
Bautechnische Beobachtungen,
MDAIK
in:
king receiving the battle sword from a deity or smiting
S.B.
enemies, or the hunting of wild animals, integrate the
135-164;
pylon into the symbolism of achieving and maintaining
M. Azim, La structure des pylones d'Horemheb
may
also
be construed as the
mountains on the horizon between which the sun
and
sets, especially in the
rises
temples of the Aten.
in the
New Kingdom
side, while at
several
take a U-shaped course through
provided with
windows and
chambers. The bridge across the passage of the temple of Ramesses
accommodates
B.
VII 127-166;
Jaros-Deckert, Pylon,
in:
81 (1981) 141-151;
in:
Helck,
a Karnak,
M. Azim, Le grand pylone de Louqsor,
Vercoutter (Paris 1985) 19-34;
C.Van Siclen
in: Iubilate
III,
JSSEA
11 (1981)
LA IV 1202-1205;
in:
in:
Karnak
Melanges Jean
A 'new' representation
Conlegae: Studies in
Memory of
AbdelAziz Sadek (San Antonio 1995) 63-80.
leading straight from the narrow
Edfu they
storeys
BIFAO
Shubert, Studies on the Egyptian pylon,
of a pylon from Karnak,
Narrow, steep staircases ascend to the roof platform,
in:
Symbolik
139-149;
12 (1943)
H. Sourouzian, L'apparition
du pylone,
zweitiirige
religiose
Pylon von Karnak.
gilding. Motifs illustrating destruction rituals, such as the
world order. The pylon
m
Karnak
slopes similarly to that of the Per- wer, with a statue niche
Bibliography:
183
at
III
in the
stair-
gateway
Medinet Habu
a small solar cult area. In front of the
pylon there are often colossal statues of the king and a
Pyramid, see also cult pyramid, step mastaba The influence of the sun
beginning of the 4th
complex of structures
precinct) to be replaced with a
whose chief elements had
their origin in
sun temples:
an east-west orientated precinct with a pyramid, representing a solar
pair of obelisks.
cult at the
Dynasty caused royal mortuary enclosures (Djoser
monument
or a primeval
mound.
The step mastaba was thereby replaced by the true pyramid, ostensibly the conversion of a natural into a crystallised, abstract form.
The
mound
vast pyramids of
the 4th Dynasty which followed demonstrate by their
exaggerated monumental proportions their special
importance
in
ensuring the continued existence of the
king and the country: their primary purpose was not to
rr
serve as a
tomb but
to
be the centre of the nightly
transformation of the king,
who went
to the
underworld
and was then newly reborn. The inner rooms of the
Section through the pylon of the temple of Horus at Edfu, showing the
pyramid, usually four in number (passage chamber,
stairway system (after Description
antechamber, serdab and sarcophagus chamber), had a
I,
Plate 52)
Pyramid
184
particular part to play in this cycle.
The sarcophagus of
hard stone, an innovation of Khufu, becomes the place
where the king
is
united with Re-Atum. The ante-
Egyptian kings continued until the end of the 17th
Dynasty
to
be buried
in a
attached to which, and in
modest form of pyramid,
some
cases erected inside
chamber, which can be traced back as
far as the kings'
which, were small cult chapels with a vaulted ceiling and
tombs
was between the
a small stela standing in the background; a small
connected with the
sarcophagus chamber was probably situated below.
of the 1st Dynasty, situated as
chamber and the
burial
corridor,
is
it
ascent of the king to heaven, and
is
Djoser onwards, decorated with
and
with ascension
texts.
From
stars
therefore,
from
later inscribed
the reign of
Menkaure,
which from the time of Sahure onwards was
situated in the east opposite the sarcophagus chamber.
In the pyramids of the Middle to have
king.
Kingdom,
From
a
group of chambers developed (named by H. Ricke the 'serdab'),
Remains of such complexes excavated by the
this appears
developed into a kind of second tomb for the
The conceptual change, from the 4th Dynasty,
the
German
the start of the
of
cessation
(in
Thebes) are being
Archaeological Institute.
New Kingdom,
royal
coinciding with
pyramid building, private
individuals erected pyramids for themselves, for example at
Abydos, Aniba, Saqqara, Sedeinga, Soleb and, Thebes. Usually these structures are small
especially
brick pyramids, sloping steeply
at
60-70°, and equipped
with a vaulted niche, high up in the east flank over the
accommodation of a
statue of the
tomb
towards an imaginary solar rebirth of the king, coincides
entrance, for the
with the development of the cultic accommodation
owner worshipping the sun. The base of the tomb of
on the
east of the pyramid, traditionally associated with
the rise of the sun, while the introduction at the start of the 5th Dynasty of the false for the
door and funerary offerings
king implied his reduction
human
to
the sphere
Amenuser (TT
131) was niched, creating the effect of a
pyramid standing
in a niched precinct.
The form adopted by the Ethiopian kings of the 25th Dynasty
for themselves
and
their households
was a
sonified as a special power, fused with the king. In the
pyramid tomb (necropoleis of El-Kurru and Nuri near Napata, Taharqa). These structures, usually only 27-28 m
Middle Kingdom the pyramidion bears the eyes of
high, with a 68° angle of slope, are steeper than Egyptian
the king.
pyramids. Their nucleus consists of rubble and gravel
of ordinary
Typical
beings.
The pyramid was per-
pyramid of the 5-6th Dynasty: north-south section through the inner chambers
(built
within an open construction trench)
Pyramid construction
185
held together by casing blocks. Their outer surface was
Bibliography (selected): Petrie, Pyramids; L. Speleers, La signification
stepped (originally probably covered with
des Pyramides,
plaster)' or
in:
smoothed, the finished form of corners being cornices or
A. Moret, L'lnfluence
torus moulding (cavetto cornice).
Maspero
Some Egypt
Egyptian-style pyramids were built outside the
in
Roman
period, for example in
Rome
(Cestius' pyramid), in North Africa and in Syria,
continuing in the 'Egyptian Revival' of the 19th century (for
example the earth pyramid of Prince
Muskow
Piickler of
Melanges Maspero
du decor
pyramide,
Dows Dunham, The Royal
(Gloucester 1947);
Cemeteries of Kush
I-IV (Boston 1950-57); Wolfgang Helck, Pyramiden,
2167-2282;
MRA
Ahmed
Fakhry, The Pyramids (Chicago-London 1961);
II-VIII (1963-77); Peter Tompkins, Secrets of the Great
Curto, Per
Histoire
monumentale;
tomba
la storia della
and W.
MDAIK
Base
Height
Unteragyptens,
Meidum M3
51°51
275(144.32)
175(92)
im Sudan,
Bent Pyramid
54°31'
360(189)
200(105)
oder Pyramidenstumpf?,
in:
37
36 (1980) 43-59; F.W. Hinkel, Pyramiden
Das Altertum 26 (1980) 77-88;
in:
in:
ZAS
F.W. Hinkel,
(top44°30')
and D.Arnold, Pyramiden, in: Helck,IA IV 1205-1272;
420 (220)
Die Pyramide als Konig?,
Khufu
51°50'40"
440 (230.36)
280(146.50)
Grabpyramide des
Djedefre
60°
200(105)
175(92)
109-132; Stadelmann, Pyramiden von Giza;
?
210(110)
?
and pyramid
200(105)
in:
ASAE 68 (1982)
friihen N.R. in
Theben,
origins, in: Expedition 33
( 1
K.P.
Kuhlmann,
223-235; Celeste Rinaldi,
he Piramidi (Milan 1983); Stadelmann, Pyramiden;
(Sneferu)
Pyramide
108 (1981) 105-124; R. Stadelmann
45°
Zawyet
MDAIK
privata a piramide, in:
Zu den kleinen Stufenpyramiden Ober- und
Kaiser,
Angle
King's tomb,
Pyramid
Lauer, Mystere;
J.-P.
(1981)107-113; Edwards, Pyramids; Brinks, Grabanlagen; G. Dreyer
Pyramid
North Dahshur
Paulys
in:
Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft 23 (1959)
S.
Pyramid measurements, cubits (metres)
(Sneferu)
Melanges
in:
(1935-38) 623-36; Leslie Grinsell, Egyptian Pyramids
111
(London 1973); Lauer,
in Silesia).
(1935-38) 603-621;
1/2
solaire sur la
in:
E.
Dziobek, Eine
MDAIK
45 (1989)
D O'Connor, Boat graves
99 1
)
5- 1 7; Lehner, Complete
Pyramids; M. Verner, Die Pyramiden (Hamburg 1998); C. Berger
el- Aryan
Hommages a Jean
et al.,
Khafre
53°10'
410(215.29)
Menkaure
51°
200(105.5)
125(65.55)
Userkaf
53°
140(73.3)
94 (49)
Pyramid construction
Sahure
50°45'
150(78.75)
(50)
The pyramids
Neferirkare
54°30'
200(105)
(72.8)
the 'wrong'
Niuserre
52°
150(78.90)
(50)
Due
Neferefre
?
125(65)
?
transported, only casing blocks were brought from the
Djedkare
52°
150(78.75)
?
Unas
56°
Senwosret
I
I
Amenemhat
II
East Bank, while for core
beginning
150(78.6)
constructed in
175(90-95)
?
leaned inwards. From the reign of Sneferu, true pyramids
150 (78.75)
100(52.5)
were erected with horizontal courses of stone.
54°
160 (84)
112(59)
known whether
49°24'
200(105.23)
116(61.25)
internal
?
160 (84)
?
Userkaf, Neferirkare and Djedkare had a stepped core,
l
of
4th
the 'steps'
structuring.
(48.65)
rising in six to eight steps.
(64.131)
pyramids continued
54-56°
200(105)
143 (75)
is
not
The core of the 4th Dynasty
to consist of coarse block
made
masonry,
of rough fieldstones, and those of the 12th
Dynasty (starting with Senwosret
III
48-52° 55°
200(101.75) 100(52.5)
(58)
of the pyramids of Senwosret
(37.35)
and Senwosret
II
II) I,
of brick. The core
Amenemhat
II
was additionally strengthened
with a system of radial walls. The casing was generally
made
(neighbour of
Mazghuna
It
while that of the 5th and 6th Dynasty pyramids was
III
Unknown
Mazghuna
were
The pyramids of Menkaure,
204(107.10)
S.
pyramids
the large 4th Dynasty pyramids contain
200(105.88)
N.
Dynasty,
and erected using mantles which
50°
Khendjer)
be
100 (52.4)
42°35
Khendjer
to
100(52.5)
III
(Hawara)
had
masonry the builders made do
II
Amenemhat
Nile,
good limestone.
the long distance that material
Senwosret
(Dahshur)
(Cairo 1994) 5-28.
on the West Bank of the
for the availability of
Senwosret
Amenemhat
I
(43)
53°13
Amenemhat
are situated
bank
Leclant
110(57.70)
I
II
to
in:
150 (78.75)
Merenre Pepy
Reading a pyramid,
with the inferior-quality rock of the West Bank. Until the
Teti
Pepy
275(143.87)
?
No ?
175(92)
?
figures available
100 (52.5)
?
of limestone; only the pyramids listed below have
granite casings: Djedefre
probably the whole casing
Khafre
bottom course
186
Pyramid construction
Schematic diagrams of the principal theories on use of pyramid ramp systems
Menkaure Menkaure
Planning, organisation, surveying (measuring) and
16 lowest courses
bottom course
the construction process are likely to have varied in
Shepseskaf
bottom course
individual cases, depending on the local conditions,
Neferirkare
bottom course (or more?)
the size
Ilia
The bottom course of
stones, 1-1.5
size of the following courses,
high.
From
the 12th Dynasty,
dowelled together (cramps). of Sneferu and Khufu, that
m
high, exceeds the
which are only 0.6-0.8 all
Rooms is,
m
casing blocks were inside the
pyramids
the burial chambers with
an antechamber and a few side-chambers, were
built
high up in the core masonry and had to be protected against the pressure of the
masonry above by complex
ceiling construction techniques. In later pyramids these
chambers were erected increasingly lower down rock.
They were usually constructed
in
open
pits,
who had developed
their skills since the Early Dynastic
and
raising
organising
(architect). Construction
the
necessary
manpower
methods developed during the
reign of Sneferu, from the
pyramid of
Meidum
via the
Bent Pyramid and the North Pyramid of Dahshur
at
was possible by the reign of Khufu
to
such a rate that erect a
is
pyramid which
to this
day amazes the beholder.
The step mastabas of the 3rd Dynasty have been
shown
which
to the centre of the pyramid, enabling the tower-like
was by
a
to
have had building ramps leading from
The actual
all
sides
nucleus to be built as high as possible. The outer mantles, sloping inwards, were placed around this core and then
of the bottom stage, as
it.
easier by a corps of craftsmen,
Period, as well as by a State-controlled system capable of
the construction
finally erected over
but
made
chambers, the sloping corridor was constructed inside
pyramid masonry was
and
impossible task was
wide, sloping building ramp; after completion of the
the ramp, beginning from the bottom.
all
in the
were protected against vertical pressure by gigantic ceiling structures. Access to the construction pit
and type of building. The apparently
erect smaller
ramp was dismantled back it had then become
ramps on the individual
to the level
possible to
steps already
constructed; with the help of these the smoothed tip of
Pyramid temple the
pyramid could be constructed.
In the case of the later
pyramids, blocks could be towed to a height of
'true'
30-50
m
using
many such ramps,
with the help of
sledges drawn by oxen, which meant that total
pyramid block material was able
to
50%
be
of the
lifted that
way. Core and casing blocks were fitted simultaneously in the
same course and were locked
parts of the
(Meidum)
together.
pyramid were reached
indicate that a steep
is
ramp
How the upper
unknown. Traces
like a staircase
was
F.W. Hinkel,
Pyramide oder Pyramidenstumpf?
ZAS
In:
187
109 (1982)
39-61; C. Rinaldi, Le piramidi (Milan 1983); Rosalie David, The
Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt. A Modern
Investigation of
Pharaoh's Workforce (London-Boston-Henley 1986); M.
pyramid building,
in:
JARCE 22
How
95-112; Peter Hodges,
the
Isler,
On
(1985) 129-142 and 24 (1987)
Pyramids were
Built
(Longmead
1989); J.-Ph. Lauer, Le probleme de la construction de la grande
pyramide,
RdE 40
in:
(1989) 91-111; Arnold, Building 80ff, 98-101;
Lehner, Complete Pyramids 202-227.
applied on the outside of the pyramid casing. The
been
possibility of blocks having
lifted
with the help of
Pyramid temple
machine-like lever systems cannot be totally dismissed.
The pyramid temple of the Old Kingdom developed from
although their nature remains a mystery, despite the
a variety of architectural
given
description
modern
by Herodotus and innumerable
suggestions.
F.W. Hinkel
A
assumes
shaduf-like lever, like that which to
have been employed in the
and
religious roots to
poorly understood multi-layered complex.
form a
Firstly,
it
was
the stage on which were performed the practices of the royal statue
and funerary
cults,
and of various associated
erection of Meroitic pyramids, could not in practice have
divine cults, especially that of Re-Horakhty Secondly, the
stood up to the demands on
decorative
it.
Neither would the 'rocker',
a kind of rocking sledge, have been capable of such tasks,
there being in any case the
no proof of
New Kingdom. Whether
its
existence prior to
casing blocks were always
finished after fitting, as in the case of Menkaure's
pyramid,
is
tenance of the king's
finally,
to the
pyramid complex. Consequently, the elements adopted from temple
Goyon, Le secret des bdtisseurs des grandes pyramides Khe'ops
constructions
R.
in:
Helck,
Stadelmann, Snofru und die Pyramiden von
Dahschur,
in:
zum Problem
MDAIK 36
LA V
1-4;
des Pyramidenbaues,
in:
MDAIK
37 (1981) 15-28;
with
symbolic
or
representational
aspects.
There
Meidum und
(1980) 437-449; D. Arnold, Uberlegungen
enemies. And,
unites
and gate
Bibliography (selected): Choisy, L'art de bdtir, 106-113; Georges
1977); D. Arnold, Pyramidenbau,
in the coronation,
ritual destruction of
there are utilitarian aspects such as a landing
architecture
(Paris
example
rule, for
by the
sed-festival or
stage
not known.
and statue programmes have symbolic
aspects concerned with the establishment and main-
no evidence of any substantial
is
mastabas
associated with the step
Modest offering
places, in the
cult installation
of the 3rd Dynasty.
form of
a small courtyard
with an offering table, appear in the time of Sneferu
(Meidum) along
the east side of pyramids.
From Khufu
onwards, the combination of a statue temple and a pillared court led to the creation of
monumental
scale. Prior to
complexes on
Shepseskaf all
a
cult structures
stood isolated from the pyramid, and so had no false
door. At the beginning of the 5th Dynasty, a group of
rooms serving
makes
its
a funerary cult (including a false door)
appearance. The arrival of a combination of
courtyard and statue temple with funerary cult rooms led to
the development of a standardised type, which
continued
to
be used into the 12th Dynasty. This type
consisted of four distinct sections (see Fig. here for
numbered elements, and last
roofing block
a)
weru
A
narrow section
(5)
and a
Fig.
under Senwosret
at the front
pillared or
columned
I):
containing the Percourt,
dominated by
pylon-like corner bastions in the north and south-east.
Groups of magazines along the sides form part of the rear of the temple. Especially prominent in the decorative
and
programmes were elements connected with the establishment and maintenance of the king's power statue
View of a
typical
showing ramps
pyramid of the 5-6th Dynasty during construction,
for positioning the roofing blocks of the burial
chamber
(destruction rituals); these were
combined with the
Pyramid town
188
room
(1),
table
and
which
magazines
equipped with a
is
in the north-west, consisting of a
rooms, followed by another group of
The complexes of Senwosret were the
false door, offering
statue of the king, as well as a group of
examples of
last
and
I
group of two
five.
Amenemhat
developed in the 5— 6th Dynasty. Senwosret
II
shrunk
the pyramid temple to a simple funerary cult place,
Meidum
II
type of pyramid temple
this
and
probably transferred the statue cult to the valley temple.
Senwosret statue temple
III also built a
added
later
reduced pyramid temple but
Hawara
a vast temple to the south. At
Amenemhat
developed the 'south temple' type, and
III
number
united in the 'Labyrinth' a large
of cult buildings
for the national gods. Bibliography: Ricke, Bemerkungen
statue temple
Pyramidentempel,
MDAIK
in:
Stadelmann, Totentempel
III,
I,
in:
706-711; Stadelmann, Pyramiden; Helck,
LA VI 699-706;
Middle Kingdoms,
the
LA VI 694-699 and Totentempel
II,
in:
complexes of the Old and
Byron Shafer, Ed., Temples of Ancient Egypt
1997) 31-85; Rainer Stadelmann, The Development of
(Cornell
statue temple
Helck,
D. Arnold,
D. Arnold, Royal cult
in:
Arnold, Rituale und
D.
II;
33 (1977) 1-14; Brinks, Grabanlagen;
Pyramid Temple
in the
Fourth Dynasty; Quirke, Temple 1-16;
David O'Connor, The interpretation of the Old Kingdom pyramid
of Khufu
complex,
in:
Stationen. Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte Agyptens (Mainz
1998) 135-144.
pyramid ofTeti
Development of the pyramid temple from Meidum 1:
chamber
funerary offerings;
for
statue temple; 4: door recess;
5:
2:
to the 6th Dynasty.
chamber with
single column;
3:
Per-weru
Pyramid town An official settlement
for the priests,
craftsmen and
others associated with a royal mortuary foundation, attested to since the reign of Sneferu. in the
It is
usually situated
immediate proximity of the pyramid or valley
ancient motifs of the sed-festival, which also had the
temple and surrounded by an enclosure wall. Houses
purpose of upholding the rule of the king.
and service
The next two
parts, b)
and
c),
are separated from each
other by a transverse corridor (4) contained within a
wider section
motif
is
at the rear,
on a raised
level.
The sed- festival
particularly emphasised in the decorative
programme
of the corridor.
b) Situated behind the
facilities
were erected
is
the statue
temple proper, which consists of a chapel with
five
a
town
later
developed. They should be distin-
guished from short-term workers' settlements intended
their
importance
pyramid construction.
pyramid towns of Khentkawes
(Kahun) have been excavated
magazines
an area of 350 x 400
c)
Inserted between b) and d) are two rooms with two
rows of
five
room with
magazines
in the south.
The square-shaped
a single pillar has a high ceiling
special feature (2).
It is
and
is
a
decorated with representations of
destruction rituals and the assembly of the national gods at the sed-festival. Its particular function
has not been
determined. d) Funerary offerings, from the time of Shepseskaf
onwards, were placed in the vaulted funerary offering
5000-7000
Despite
to the study of settlements, only the
shrines for the king's statues (3) and three to four to the north.
uniform plan, the
Such settlements were often the starting point from
which
only for the duration of
door recess
to a
houses reflecting the position of their owner.
size of
m =
inhabitants,
and Senwosret
I
II
to date; the latter covered
140,000 sq
which
m
probably
and had
made
it
exceptionally large. Bibliography:
W.M.
Flinders Petrie, Kahun, Gurob
(London 1890) 21-32; W.M. Flinders
Petrie, Illahun,
and Hawara,
Kahun and Gurob
(London 1891) 5-8; Hassan, Giza IV 35-67; W. Helck, Bemerkungen zu den Pyramidenstadten im Alten Reich,
91-111; R. Stadelmann, La
RdE
ville
in:
MDAIK
33 (1981) 67-77; R. Stadelmann, Pyramidenstadt,
LAV 9-14.
15 (1957)
de pyramide a l'Ancien Empire, in:
in:
Helck,
Pyramidion Pyramidion The
simple
final stone at the top of a
of an obelisk.
pyramid
and, less often,
The only example preserved from the Old
if it
had been
raised, layer
by
layer,
189
during
construction. Bibliography: G. Jequier,
Deux pyramides du Moyen Empire
(Cairo
Kingdom is the undecorated limestone pyramidion of the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. In the Middle Kingdom pyramidia were up to 1.30 m high, made of black
V
granite and decorated with the eyes of the king, the
Plate 29; H.
barque of the sun and texts relating
(1967-1968) 1-20; Zahi Hawass, The discovery of the pyramidion of
to
heaven and the
Many examples from private brick New Kingdom (Deir el-Medina) and
1933) 19-26, 58-60; A. Rammanl-Peeters, Les pyramidions egyptiens
du Nouvel Empire (Leiden 1983); 23-25; Arnold, Amenemhet
K. Martin, Pyramidion, in; Helck,
de Meulenaere, Pyramidions d'Abydos,
progress of the sun.
the satellite pyramid of Khufu,
pyramids of the
Memory ofAbd
Late Period have been found which
show the tomb owner
greeting the sun. Fitting the pyramidion was technically
el
Memory ofAbd el Aziz Sadek, Part
Construction of the uppermost courses of the pyramid of Khafre during the positioning of the pyramidion
in:
JEOL
VII, 20
Iubilate Conlegae: Studies in
in:
Aziz Sadek, Part
(San Antonio 1995) 105-121;
I
Nabil Swelim, The Pyramidion of Khafra, in
LA
14-16; Stadelmann, Pyramiden,
III
II
in: Iubilate
Conlegae: Studies
(San Antonio 1995) 57-62.
Q mastaba of
Qa'a,
dated
An archaic brick mastaba which has been dated It
(3505)
to the 1st
Saqqara, 44 x 65.2 m,
at
Dynasty (reign of
Qa'a).
has colourful painted niching, in front of which
is
a
brick bench with bulls' skulls. Attached to the north side is
annexe with the remains of two wooden
a large brick
mortuary temple. This would have been
figures, like a
unusual for the Early Dynastic Period and it
was usurped
in the 3rd
it
may be
that
Dynasty and the temple added.
AD
116 (Trajan). North of the gate
forecourt with a pylon at
northern
its
was erected
in the reign of
existing fort
and was completed
the
in the reign of
same
elevation are the ruins of another temple, built
Bibliography: R.
Naumann, Bauwerke der Oase Khargeh, in: MDAIK 8
(1939) 6-8;
Sauneron, Notes de Voyage 291-294;
S.
(London 1958) 5-36.
BIFAO 78 (1978) 5-10.
campagne de
la
(Qantir) see Per-Ramesses
Qasr el-'Aguz A small well-preserved temple
Qasr 'Ain el-Zaijan A temple in the Kharga
by Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
II
Medinet Habu;
of a front structure like a pronaos and the
renewed
the rule of Antonius
in
pronaos, a brick-built
of Hibis, was
Pius. Instead of a
fore-hall,
22
m
long,
El-Deir and Qasr Dush). The main
to
temple building comprises an antechamber and offering table
room with
a cult
image
recess.
A precise assessment
(1939) 8-10;
S.
Naumann, Bauwerke der Oase Khargeh, in: MDAIK 8
densely covered with barrack structures other oasis temples, this one Isis,
Serapis
measures 7.55 x
Plate 18;
Dominique
is
etc.
Unlike
not dedicated to
Oasis.
The
10.40 x 23.53
earliest part of the
32
m
surrounded by a
fortification wall
that of
Amasis and Darius
vault.
I. It
taller
is
pronaos. The pylon
monumental stone
at
Theban
is
all
Amun
roofed with a barrel later fronted
with a
the front of the temple has a
gate bearing a dedicatory inscription
is
consists of a hall with
a sanctuary; the ceiling of the latter as well as
The main temple building was
m, in Kharga
four columns, an offering table room, stairs to the roof and
and has a pillared hall with
two longish side-rooms
el-
and dates from the
four slender columns, stairs to the roof, an offering table
room and
Le Qasr
main temple building
and Horus. The main temple building
15..
Mallet,
Qasr el-Ghueda
A temple of Amun, measuring
fortress set on an elevation at the
southern end of the Kharga Oasis (Kysis). The interior
but to
II,
three parallel sanctuaries for the
Sauneron, Notes de Voyage 290-291.
Qasr Dush A Roman temple
Bibliography: Description
Agouz (Cairo 1909); J.Quaegebeur.Qasr el-Aguz,in: Helck,L4 V 40-41.
reigns of
of this structure does not yet exist. Bibliography: R.
main temple
which has three consecutive transverse rooms.
was
constructed in front of the main temple building
(comparable
in:
probably a place of oracles or healing. The complex consists
building,
Amun
1976,
dedicated to Thoth, built
in front of
13.56 m, surrounded by a well-preserved brick enclosure
Ptolemaic structure, dedicated to
Sauneron,
S.
fouilles
of 26 x 68 m.
facade formed a type of pylon. The
Hadrian
completely of brick.
Douch-Rapport preliminaire de
Its
The temple
Domitian inside an already
with a forecourt added under Trajan. To the west and on
Bibliography. Walter B. Emery, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty
Oasis measuring only 7.22 x
lies a large
front.
Plan of the temple of Amun at Qasr el-Ghueda
Triad. A
pronaos
Qasr Qarun with two columns between the
in front of the temple,
screen walls, was probably erected Ptolemy
III.
in
the reign of
To the south of the main temple building
is
only
name
The building
is
constructed of dark-brown calciferous sandstone, and
is
attested to
workmen and
for troops or
In front of the gate lies a processional platform.
basalt mines
Bibliography: Rudolf
(1939) 4-7;
Naumann, Bauwerke der Oase Khargeh, S.
in:
Sauneron, Notes de Voyage 286-289.
into six rows of five houses
subdivided into
The remains of dedicated to stone-built
five parallel units.
80 x 114
m
in
each, themselves
The settlement must
have accommodated 500-1000 inhabitants.
a small
temple of Alexander the Great
Amun-Re and Horus
two-room shrine
is
in
Bahariya Oasis.
A
surrounded by a temple
precinct with densely arranged living
accommodation
and possible magazines. Bibliography: A. Fakhry,
the transport facilities for the
Gebel el-Qatrani. Three brick-paved
at
streets divide the rectangular settlement, size,
Qasr el-Megysbeh
that of Sobek.
is
connected with the nearby Middle Kingdom settlement
the facade of another structure, possibly a birth house.
MDAIK 8
191
!
A
Bibliography: G. Schweinfurth, Ein altes Heiligtum an den Ufern des
Moris,
and
in: Illustrierte
0.
Deutsche Monatshefte (1895) 361-372; K.
Menghin, Kasr
Sagha,
el
MDAIK
in:
M. Werbrouck, Le Temple de Qasr es-Sagha,
5
in:
Bittel
1-10;
(1934)
CdE 25 (1950)
199-208; Dieter Arnold, Der Tempel Qasr el-Sagha (Mainz 1979). The
Temple of Alexander the Great at Bahria
Oasis; A. Fakhry, Bahria Oasis (Cairo 1950) 41-47.
settlement:
el-Sagha,
in:
J.
Sliwa, Die Siedlung des Mittleren Reiches bei Qasr
MDAIK 42
(1986) 167-179; 48 (1993) 177-189;
Qasr el-Sagha 1979-1988,
J.
Sliwa,
Meander 47 (1992) 515-528.
in:
Qasr el-Sagha
A well-preserved
small temple of the late 12th Dynasty, to
the west of Lake Qarun, situated on an elevation
former bank of the in parallel,
21 m).
lake.
open onto
Seven
cult
image shrines, aligned
a shared offering table
The anticipated
on a
room
(7.8
x
front part of the temple, possibly a
court and/or pillared hall, was never erected.
The temple
has no inscriptions, which means the names of the owner
and the gods residing
in the
temple remain unknown; the
Qasr Qarun A temple of Sobek
(
19 x 28 m), dating from the Ptolemaic
period and situated
among
the ruins of the Dionysias
military settlement at the southern
This
fortress-like
tradition of Late Period buildings,
high outer wall.
It
end of Lake Qarun.
temple was constructed in the
is
preserved
cavetto cornices. The only portal
Three consecutive main
and surrounded by a
undamaged up is
halls inside are followed
stairs to the roof.
by the
many side-rooms
sanctuary. Lying along both sides are
and
to the
situated at the front.
The decoration
in the
temple
is
unfinished. In front of the facade are remains of a kiosk of
columns. The ruins of a barque station of the temple, connected with Bibliography: Description
it
IV, Plates
lie
360
69-70;
J.
Wild, Qasr-Qarun/Dionysias 1948 (Cairo 1950);
Schwartz and Henri J.
Schwartz, Alexandre
Badawy and Henri Wild, Qasr-Qarun/Dionysias 1948
View along the
front of the seven na
Dynasty temple of Qasr el-Sagha
in the offering table
room, 12th Temple of Sobek
at
Qasr Qarun
m in front
by a processional avenue.
(Cairo 1969).
Qaw
192
el-Kebir
Its 14 columns, made of brown sandstone, have composite and Hathor capitals. The building was
of Aswan.
probably a free-standing barque station for the goddess Isis
of Philae, perhaps connected to a small temple on the
East
Bank which was
still
in existence in 1813.
The kiosk
has been re-erected next to the temple of Kalabsha, south of the high
dam at Aswan
(Sadd
el-'Ali).
Bibliography: Gau, Antiquite's, Plates 7-8; Giinther Roeder,
Bab Kalabsche (Cairo 1911-12) 146-179;
Debod
bis
R. Bianchi, Qertassi, in:
Helck.LAV 48-49.
Section and plan of the temple of Sobek at Qasr Qarun
Qaw
el-Kebir
The necropolis of Antaeopolis, lying on the East Bank of the Nile between Asyut
and Akhmim, containing the
rock tombs of the rulers of the 12th Upper Egyptian
nome, Wahka
The tombs
I,
Wahka
Ibu and
(12th Dynasty).
II
are extremely interesting architecturally:
modelled on pyramid temples, they include a valley temple, causeway and mortuary temple, the consisting of a limestone pylon with a
beyond. Steep
stairs
across an arch lead to the next
terrace with a pillared hall lies
a
longitudinal
open
at the front.
with
hall
Beyond
rectangular
(corresponding to the Per-weru). From here to the roof of the
latter
columned court
temple with a
cult place.
this
pillars
stairs lead
The
walls of
the antechambers were originally lined with slabs of
limestone decorated with another
reliefs.
Beyond the
longi-
x 16.6 m, hewn out of
tudinal hall
lies
the rock,
ceiling cut into a vault with a shallow curve.
its
hall, 9.5
room and the three statue chambers attached to the offering chamber are painted. The rock wall behind the longitudinal hall seems to have had a window allowing This
light into the
burial
rock-carved
hall.
Below the
chambers containing the stone sarcophagi of the
nomarchs and
their families.
For the temple of
Qaw
and view of early Roman kiosk
Antaeopolis.
Bibliography: W'.M.R Petrie. Antaeopolis (London
Qaw (Leipzig
at
Qertassi
Quartzite Granular
el-Kebir, see
Steckeweh, Die Furstengrdber von
Elevation
latter are the
1930);
Hans
1936).
silicified
sandstone, consisting predominandy
colour varying from yellowish grey to
of quartz,
its
reddish.
extreme hardness meant that
Its
occasionally in the 6th Dynasty,
from the 12th Dynasty
Qertassi
A beautifully shaped early Roman kiosk which stood on a wcky elevation on the West Bank of the Nile 50 km south
burial
chambers and
it
was used only
becoming more frequent
for thresholds, pillars, sarcophagi,
statues (colossi of
Memnon). As
one of its sources was the area of Heliopolis, as sacred to Re. The chief quarries are at Gebel
it
was seen
el-Ahmar
Queens, tombs of near Heliopolis as well as Gebel Tingar and Gebel Gulag
193
Quay, see platform
near Aswan. The hardness of the material caused considerable problems in working. There
about
how
it
is
no information
Bibliography: Lucas, Quarzit, in: Helck,
AEMI
LA V
Queens, tombs of The
was mined. 62-63, 418-419; R. and D. Klemm,
50-53; De Putter, Pierres 95-99: Klemm,
the queen's the king's
Steine 283-303.
Queens' pyramids 6-7 on the north side of the pyramid of Senwosret
burial places of queens in the 1st
appear not
I
to
be differentiated, while
tomb took
tomb;
later
and 2nd Dynasties
in the reign of
Djoser
the form of a subsidiary burial in
it
(with entrance chapel) at El-Lisht
was completely excluded from the
Qurna
194
From the
precinct of the kings tomb.
reign of Khufu to the
own
12th Dynasty, queens were provided with their
pyramid complex near the follow
largely
the
king's
pyramid. These
small
cult sites
of contemporary private
pattern
89 (1989) 227-247; Christian Leblanc, Ta Set Neferou. Une necropole de Thebes-ouest
et
son histoire
(Cairo 1989); Peter Munro.
I
Das
Doppelgrab der Koniginnen Nebet und Khenut. Der Unas-Friedhof
Nord-West
I.
(Mainz 1993); Janosi, Pyramidenanlagen; Audran
mastabas, with neither a valley temple nor a causeway.
Labrousse, Les pyramides des reines (Milan 1999); N. and H. Strudwick,
Boat burials, on the other hand, were frequently added. At
Thebes in Egypt (London 1999) 120-138.
the
same time, some queens were buried in mastabas. Very
few queens received a burial chamber in the king's
Qurna
pyramid (exceptions
The modern settlement
Senwosret
III,
an unknown
at
A
two queens king's
Weret in the pyramid of
are
in that of Amenemhat III,
tomb
at
at the
side-valleys.
New
Biban el-Harim (Ta-Set-Neferu) and
They have no attendant
its
complexes, top
cult
structures or facades, consisting simply of two or three
corridors or chambers in the rock, the last
the burial chamber.
chambers
for
A
II)
developed under the influence of
the tombs of the kings, with an antechamber with two pillars
and
a
sarcophagus
hall
The most important tomb
is
supported on four
pillars.
in:
Helck,
LA
III
468-473; Mark Lehner, The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the
Pyramid of Khufu
(Mainz
1985);
R.
Stadelmann,
Koniginnengrab und Pyramidenbezirk im Alien Reich, (
1
in:
ASAE
71
987) 25 1 -260; A.M. Dodson, The tombs of the queens of the Middle
Kingdom,
in:
ZAS
from the after the
1
tomb
highest point. village
in the south, with
1th to the 20th Dynasties.
of Sheikh
Abd
rock tombs dating
The place
is
named
el-Qurna, which crowns the
Nowadays the name 'Qurna'
applies to the
which covers the necropolis as well as generally to
the whole West
Bank
at
Thebes. Included in
this area is
Sety Is 'house of millions of years'.
115 (1988) 123-136; Ch. Leblanc, Architecture
evolution chronologique des tombes
Qus The remains of ancient Apollinopolis Parva, south of Koptos. All that has been found of the temple dedicated
and Hekat
to Haroeris ('Horus the Elder')
that of Nefertari.
Bibliography: W. Helck, Koniginnengrabertal,
Satellite
Theban
More elaborate complexes
children.
(Leblanc type No.
room forming
few of these tombs have side-
in the central part of the
necropolis between the Assasif valley, in the north, and
Deir el-Medina,
South Saqqara).
concentration of queens' tombs occurs in the
Kingdom
and
de la Vallee des Reines, in:
et
BIFAO
of two huge gate structures situated 49 inscriptions of Ptolemy XI Alexander
Ptolemy east
II.
and a naos of
it
lay to the
has disappeared below the
settlement.
Bibliography: Description
ASAE3
II,
The main temple building probably
behind these ruins but
modern
are the remains
m apart, bearing
(1902) 215-235.
IV, Plate 1;
A. Kamal, Le pylone de Qous,
in:
R Raising loads Traditional
Bibliography: Arnold, Building 66-72; F.W. Hinkel, Pyramide oder
methods of
raising heavy loads consist of
sloped areas or building ramps, a rope pulley and leverage.
These
continued
still
Pyramidenstumpf?
in:
ZAS
108 (1981)105-124. General:
Lifting in early Greek architecture, in:
JHS 94 (1974)
J.J.
Coulton,
19.
be used in Egyptian
to
construction long after other countries had adopted cranes, block and tackle,
and the
'big wheel'
(the
treadmill principle).
Many examples exist,
of gently sloping construction
which vary depending on the
project,
ramps
from
piles
of rubble to solidly constructed brick or stone ramps.
The of
latter
were not always practical
structures, such as
tall
in the construction
pyramids and pylons, due
to the quantities of material required to build
lack of stability
them,
and enormous length. Large temples, on
the other hand,
may
have been erected by the use of
building ramps.
known about
Little is
the raising of loads using ropes,
but stone grooves and pulleys, around which ropes would
have passed, are preserved from the 4th Dynasty, and
wooden wheels
for
simple rope pulleys existed from the
Middle Kingdom onwards. The existence of crane-like
on two
hoists
collapsible ships'
reminiscent
legs,
of the A-shaped
masts of the Old Kingdom, cannot be
ruled out, and the shaduf, a water-raising device (attested to
from the
New Kingdom) may have had
in building technology.
Two round
its
counterpart
bases, like columns,
have been found on either side of a building (Fig.) at
El-Lisht and
ramp
may have been part of some pulling
The
raising of heavy loads using
by lever sockets
wooden
levers
in building blocks. In
times, G. Legrain needed 150
men
is
modern
using levers to
lift
the
point of an obelisk which weighed 180 tons. Flinders Petrie calculated that
60-70 men could have raised the
50-60 tonne granite blocks which form the roof of the burial
chamber of Khufu using
levers
and progressive
underpinning. However, the fact that the casing blocks of several pyramids
show
lever holes only in their
narrow sides indicates that they were used lateral positioning
II,
temple of (Abydos)
north-west of the temple of Sety
Abydene Triad and the
(Osiris, Isis
king's cult.
structure
The
I, is
and Horus), some guest gods
tightly sectioned plan of this
a 'model' for Egyptian
is
Kingdom. Thanks
to
its
m
dedicated to the
good
temples of the New
state of preservation, the
function and order of rooms
is
clear:
the pylon
is
followed by a court with statue pillars; the hall on a
or hoisting device.
attested to
Ramesses
This king's 'house of millions of years', situated 270
and not
for lifting.
solely for
Obelisks were
raised level cult
beyond with four barque rooms
opening onto
it;
for the king's
the hall of appearances
and
offering table hall, with three sanctuaries of the
and some subordinate gods grouped around the The
reliefs
a large
primary latter.
executed in the tradition of the Sety temple are
particularly fine. To the
left
of the offering table are a
room and the treasury. The suggestion that an unknown 'Osireion' of Ramesses II may be situated clothing
behind the temple
is
open
Bibliography: M.A. Murray,
to doubt.
The temple of Ramesses
II
at
Abydos,
in:
Ancient Egypt (1916) 121-138; K.P. Kuhlmann, Der Tempel Ramses
MDAIK
probably raised by the combined use of ramps, pulley
II.
ropes and levers.
Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee, 44-46.
in
Abydos,
in:
35 (1979) 189-193; 38 (1982) 355-362;
196
Ramesses
barque station (Karnak)
III,
contains
the essential elements of an independent
all
temple: a pylon with two colossal statues, a court with
two rows of eight statue
pillars,
and
a hypostyle
chamber and the three sanctuaries of
hall/offering
Amun, Mut and Khonsu.
Restricted space prevented the
more than the barque of Amun. The hall of the court stands on a raised level and has
introduction of at the rear
four statue pillars;
crowned with a severely
its
screen walls,
a frieze of uraei.
damaged building
at the front, are
The temple
of Ramesses
is
similar to
Mut
in the
II
precinct. Bibliography: Georges Legrain,I« temples de
Karnak (Brussels 1929)
85-123; Henri Chevrier, Le temple reposoir de Ramses
111
a Karnak
(Cairo 1933); University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications:
and
Reliefs
Inscriptions at Karnak, Vol.
1:
Ramses
Temple within
Hi's
the Great Enclosure of Amun (Chicago 1936).
/
Ramesseum The
largest of the
many 'houses of millions of years'
on the West Bank
at
Thebes and one of
the foremost
preserved Egyptian temples built by Ramesses
II.
The
complex, situated on the edge of the desert, rises in low terraces.
The temple, which has
measures 58 x 183 m, and enclosure wall of 180 x
69
at least
a distinctly
257 m. The
are
pylon
poem Ozymandias.
rows of eight statue a
is
a brick-built cult palace. Opposite this
is
the fallen seated statue of Ramesses
is
Shelley's
Abydos, showing room functions
pylon
colossal statue pillars. In front of the second
1 1
high and weighing 1000 tonnes, II at
first
m wide and has partly collapsed. On the south side of
the lower court
Plan of the 'house of millions of years' (temple) of Ramesses
skewed plan,
surrounded by an
is
monumental
the king, 10
altar
pillars,
and
at
II,
19
made famous
In the upper court are
1 1
m in
two
m high, facing each other,
the rear two seated images of
m high and carved of black granite. Beyond
a hypostyle hall consisting of two rows of six
lies
columns and six rows of smaller papyrus columns - a replica of the hypostyle hall at Karnak. central
Behind
this are three smaller halls of
columns, a barque
sun temple and other rooms along the sides and at the
sanctuary, the space for a structures. All
rear of the temple have disappeared
Hekataios
certain.
of Abdera
and
their plan
described
a
is
not
gilded
zodiac with golden images set into the temple roof.
Attached to the temple on the north side temple, View over the rear part of the temple of Ramesses
II at
Abydos
may
Karnak (Amun
preserved barque station of this
first
court of the
precinct).
Amun
The 24 x 62
a smaller it
store
houses and ancillary buildings are
unusually well preserved. The enclosure was surrounded
barque station (Karnak)
king stands in the
is
function the subject of conflicting opinions:
perhaps have been a birth house. The grain
stores,
Ramesses III, An almost completely
its
temple of
m
building
on
all
sides by
avenues of sphinxes
processions around the walls. The
destroyed
at
for
barque
Ramesseum was
an early date, possibly by an earthquake,
Ramesseum and quantities of
its
building material were reused at
Medinet Habu. A major programme of
restoration
is
Jiirgen Osing,
197
1
Zur Funktion einiger Raume des Ramesseums,
Studies Simpson
II
in:
635-646.
underway. Bibliography: Extracts from the Aegyptiaka of Hekataios of Abdera,
down by Diodoros, Diodori
handed
Geographica XVII/46, 810; Description Quibell et the E.
al.,
1/47-49,
and
Plates 27-37;
II,
Strabo,
James
work done
Ramesseum,
at the
Baraize, Deblaiement du
in:
ASAE
Ramesseum,
193-200; Holscher, Medinet Habu, traditions thebains concernant
Vol. 3;
2 (1901) 193-195;
in:
ASAE
8
(1907)
G. Haeny, L'origine des
Memnon,
in:
BIFAO 64 (1966)
203-212; G. Goyon, Le grand cercle d'or du temple d'Osymandas,
BIFAO 76 (1976) 289-300; Jean-Claude Goyon and Hasan Le
Ramesseum,
Ramesseum,
E.
The Ramesseum (London 1898); H. Carter, Report on
in:
Vols
12
Helck,
tombeau d'Osymanyas
Gamal Eddin Mokhtar
(Cairo
LA V
1973-79);
R.
Stadelmann,
91-98; Ch. Leblanc, Diodore,
et la statuaire
du Ramesseum,
(Cairo 1985) 69-82; general, see
onwards (Cairo from 1990-91 ); Aufrere, L'Egypte
in:
el-Ashiri,
in:
le
Melanges
Memnonia
restituee
I
165-170;
The Ramesseum from the northeast
1
lower court
2 granite colossus 3 cult palace
4 upper court 5 hypostyle hall
6 barque sanctuary 7 sun temple
Plan of the
Ramesseum and
longitudinal
and cross sections through the upper court and the hypostyle
hall
198
Ramose, tomb of Ramose, tomb of The Theban tomb of the
vizier
to the period of transition III to
that of Akhenaten.
Ramose (TT
55) belongs
from the reign of Amenhotep
It is
68
m
and so
in length
good example of the exaggerated monumental private
tombs customary
that
in
period,
comparison with the tomb of Kheruef and the earlier
tomb of Amenemhat Surer.
forecourt
is
is
bearing slightly
Like a saff tomb,
sunk deep below the ground
a
size of
level.
its
The
transverse hall beyond has four rows of eight short and
squat papyrus
columns and
the
room beyond has two last room
rows of four columns of the same type. The
leads into the cult chapel, which has statue recesses along Royal colossal statues in the north-east corner of the upper courtyard of the
Ramesseum
As in the tomb of Kheruef and the tombs at Amarna, a winding corridor leads from the pillared hall three sides.
to the burial
complex.
Bibliography: N. de Garis Davies,
(London 1941 );
R.
The.Tomb of
Stadelmann, Ramose,
in:
the Vizier
Helck,
® ® •
® •
•
•
•
•
®~
•
•
•
§)<§)(§)<§)
<§>®®<§)
®<§)
(§)<§)(§)(•>
®
<§>®<§>®
20
View through the hypostyle
hall into the interior of the
temple
Plan of the
tomb of Ramose (TT
55) at Thebes
Ramose
LA V 98-100.
Rehotep and Nefret, tomb of Ramp, see also building ramp, transport There are
many
leads to the higher-level burial chamber,
traces of transportation roads, dating
forming a 14.67
m
199
ceiling
its
high corbelled vault. The limestone
from the Old Kingdom onwards, leading from stone
pyramidion
down to the Nile and from ports to building sites. In many cases they were formed by clearing away stones and piling these up along the sides. Where
steeper slope than the
the pyramid
necessary they were supported on a bed of stones and,
along the sides, and in the north-east and south-east
over depressions in the sand, they continued in the form
corners two largish unidentified monuments. These
quarries
Aswan, Gebel el-Qatrani road from Memphis, via Dahshur, to the
of a bank: stone quarries at
km long), the
( 1
Faiyum (50 km), Hatnub (17 km), the gneiss quarries
at
Toshka, west of Abu Simbel (80 km). to
the actual construction sites were shorter, on a slope
10-15° and 5
m
wide. The core
consisted of brick or rubble, with inserted beams,
and
with
side-walls
Ramps were the roof of
and
hard
a
upper
also used in burial rites
mastabas and,
in burial
consisting of a central offering
would have
structures
On
itself.
the east side of
finally
room and magazines
been
A
settlement.
stone building, 60 x 100 m, noted in the
may have been
temple
the valley
(attested to in a protective decree of
Pepy
but
I)
it
has
since disappeared. Bibliography:
(1905) 1-1
1;
L.
Borchardt, Ein KonigserlaC aus Dahschur,
MM
III;
Stadelmann,
in:
MDA/K 38(1982)
in:
ZAS 42
109-123;39
(1983) 207-223; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 100-105; R. Stadelmann et al.,
chambers, for
(1993) 259-267; Lehner, Complete Pyramids 104-105.
is
To the
built in stone.
south-west are the stone quarries and a workmen's
performed on
hoisting up the lid of a sarcophagus. There
Pyramiden und Nekropole des Snofru
in
Dahschur,
in:
MDAIK 49
evidence of
use in the construction of small pyramids.
their
The nature of the ramps used pyramids
large
surface.
pyramid
a temporary brick-built cult complex
is
cultivation in 1904,
Building ramps leading from storage areas of approximately
preserved and has a considerably
is
is
in the construction of
surrounded by controversy (pyramid
construction). Bibliography: Arnold, Building 79-101; in:
Amartm
Reports
III
189-212;
I.
I.
Shaw,
A survey
at
Hatnub,
Shaw, Pharaonic quarrying and
mining: settlement and procurement
in.
Egypt's marginal regions,
in:
Anfk/i//fy68(1994) 108-119.
Rawer, tomb of An important tomb complex individual
Giza, occupied by
at
tombs of the Rawer
mastabas standing
family,
in front of the cliff,
some
is
many them
while others were
no more than chambers carved out of the particularly interesting feature
of
rock.
A
the statue cult chamber,
View over the ruins of the pyramid temple of Sneferu
at
the
Red
Pyramid, Dahshur
fronted by a cruciform corridor and an entrance recess
Reed buildings, see woven timber
with four serdabs. Bibliography: Hassan, Giza 11-61; George A. Reisner,
Giza Necropolis
I
A
History of the
construction
(Cambridge, Mass. 1942) 233-234.
Red Pyramid
Rehotep and Nefret, tomb of An important brick mastaba of the early 4th Dynasty at
The pyramid Appearance of Sneferu' at Dahshur was the
Meidum
last
of three erected by this king from his 29th year
onwards. The length of its base
and
its
m
220 m,
its
height 105
m
angle of slope 45° (like the upper section of the
Bent Pyramid). The entrance 28
is
in the
is
situated at a height of
(now missing) casing on
the north side.
A
steep corridor leads to the two antechambers lying at
approximately ground
level.
Their ceilings are finished
with impressive corbelled vaults.
up
in
An opening
the wall at the back of the rear
8
m
chamber
stone,
(No. 6).
Its
was walled
cruciform cult chapel, lined with
off
when
the mastaba underwent
enlargement and was then used as a serdab, from which
came
now
the
famous statue group of Rehotep and
in the
Egyptian
Museum
at
Nefret,
Cairo (CG 3 and 4); the
niche was later replaced with a cult place on the outside. (See also
Nefermaat and Atet.)
Bibliography:
W.M.
A.O. Bolshakov,
Meidum,
in:
Flinders Petrie,
Some
Medum (London
1892) 15-17;
observations on the early chronology of
GM 123 (1991)
11-20.
tomb
Rekhmire,
200
Rekhmire, tomb of tomb (TT 100)
This rock
of
c) In the 21st
by one of Thutmosis
built
Dynasty Per-Ramesses was dismantled
Ill's
for re-use at Tanis.
master-builders at Thebes for the vizier Rekhmire. The
Other examples
wall decoration
rank
in
make
and the two
m
long,
The
rooms
monument
are T-shaped.
unusual in that
of the
first is
its
The passage,
ceiling rises steeply
reaching a height of 8 m. The rear
interior,
accommodates
level.
a
situated in the gently sloping rock
is
interior is
towards the wall
tomb
terms of cultural history. The architecture
simple: a courtyard
27
this
a cult
image niche
5
m
above floor
wall decoration includes unique representations
of construction
work
(see
brick, building
ramp,
scaffolding, stone working, transport, Figs). Bibliography:
Norman de
Thebes, 2 Vols
(New York
Dynasty was e)
at
Akhenaten was used
Ramesses
The
final
many have symbolic decoration in raised the Old Kingdom they often represented lotus from the New Kingdom there are the heraldic
pillars at
Karnak, motifs from Hathor symbolism and,
less often,
djed pillars. Manuel
158.
phase was incorporation of these elements
It is
the
were replaced
at the
structures, the dismantled material
the foundations of the
latter.
In this
way
same
was
site
the property of
stood on a pure and venerable base. Frequently older
new site; for example, in Lower Egypt: 18th Dynasty, pyramid temples were
blocks were sent to a a)
In the
b)
In
the
dismanded
reign
To meet the living
new buildings were significant system.
type
of
monuments, such statuary,
Rome
re-use
differs
removing complete
later practice of
sphinxes and royal
as obelisks,
from pharaonic
Alexandria or
material
building
from the
sites to
embellish buildings in
them
as Egyptian spoils in
to display
or Constantinople.
Pharaonique (Cairo 1946); R.A. Schwaller de Lubicz, Le temple de
in
for re-use at
II,
temples were
Per-Ramesses.
Helck,
Rock temple A temple either
Paris
1
957) 355-363; W. Helck,
carved out of the rock as a single hollow
standing structures
at its front
was no recognisably
some
additional free-
(= hemispeos). There
distinct pattern to such temples,
local conditions (width of the Nile, position in the desert)
The
plan corresponds to that of ordinary temples. Rock
temple building followed the traditions of rock
10
III filled
(
structure (= speos) or one having
-+Foundations of the Luxor temple of Amenhotep
Ill
LA VI 1264-1265.
usually dictating the type of temple constructed.
temples in the Delta.
of Ramesses
in:
by
built into
god concerned was preserved, while the new building
dismantled for re-use
etc.
and depictions of
on the basis of a symbolically
Wiederverwendung,
earlier buildings
Mansura
unlikely that blocks for re-use in
I'homme: L'Apet sud a Louxor, Vol.
Re-use of blocks
new
Horemheb and
Bibliography: Alexandre Varille, Quelques characteristiques du temple
Bibliography: Borchardt, Pflanzensaule 10,22; Jequier,
When
of
in buildings
creatures were systematically 'killed' using chisels prior
essentially
Square pillar;
bundles;
I.
Karnak, Luxor and Hermopolis.
strictures of Islam, inscriptions
This
In
II at
into Islamic buildings in Cairo,
selected
1944).
Relief pillar, see also djed pillar, pillar
relief.
pyramid of Amenemhat
built into the
Material (talatat) from the sun temples of
to their re-use.
Tomb of Rekh-mi-Re'
Garis Davies, The
are:
d) Material from the pyramid temples of the 4-6th
with re-used blocks (after Schwaler de Lubicz)
tomb
Rock tomb construction, and the open pillared facade, as well as
Bibliography:
transverse hall and ascent towards the sanctuary,
des temples rupestres,
indicate
their
relationship
Artemidos, Gebel
have had their origin
II
and they
rock tombs
Some
Cahiers d'Histoire Egyptienne (Cairo) 10
in:
(1966) 69-91; G. Haeny, Felstempel,
(Speos
Helck,
in:
LA
161-169;
II
may
D.
in primitive cult caves. Six
rock
Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit, Irmgard Hein, Uberlegungen zur Lage
Nubia
in
largely follow the
common
II.
in:
in
Helck,
Nubien,
LA
in:
1231-1232; Hein,
II
Kurth, Tempeltagung
131-135.
pattern
They
Wildung, Hohlenheiligtum,
der Felstempel Ramses'
the reign of
in
of pillared hall, offering table room, sanctuary.
are
apparently spaced a day's journey from one another.
number
Jacquet, Observations sur revolution architecturale
rock temples
el-Silsila).
temples were established
Ramesses
to
J.
201
A
Rock tomb
of rock temples are dedicated to
Following the traditional practices of stone quarries,
Hathor, possibly connected with the concept of the
these tombs are carved horizontally out of the rock, often
Hathor cow emerging from the desert
Nubian rock
having a structured facade. Shaft tombs do not belong to
temples were also associated with the idea that their
the category of rock tombs. Saff tombs, sunk in the
noticeable
hills.
caves were possibly the source of the Nile. G. stresses that rock temples
were constructed
untouched regions and were thereby
felt
Haeny
in previously
monumental Late Period tombs
desert plain, and the
Thebes represent
to penetrate into
Bibliography (general): Vandier, Manuel
unearthly realms.
at
transitional forms. 11/
1
293-386; Klaus
Kuhlmann, Materialien zur Archdologie und Geschichte des Raumes von
Larger rock temples (chronological
Achmim (Mainz
1983); Aidan Dodson, Egyptian Rock-cut
Tombs
(Princes Risborough 1991).
list)
Old Kingdom
Rock temple
Dyn./reign
Dedication
1.
Serabit el-Khadim
12th Dynasty
Hathor/deified kings
The deepening and enlargement of underground burial
Speos Artemidos
Hatshepsut
Pakhet
complexes during the 3rd Dynasty, as well as the
Faras
Hatshepsut
Hathor of Ibshek
Salamuni
Thutmosis
III
Hathor,
Ellesiya
Thutmosis
III
Amun,
Gebel Dosha
Thutmosis
III
Hathor, king
underlying the development of rock tombs from the
Deir el-Bahari
Thutmosis
III
Hathor
4th Dynasty onwards. This was true not only in the
Wadi el-Sebu'a
Amenhotep
Gebel
Horemheb
el-Silsila
Abahuda Wadi Miya
III
(Kanais)
Sety
I
El-Kab
Ramesses
II
Beit el-Wali
Ramesses
II
Gerf Hussein
Ramesses
II
king, Horus
Horus King,
Horemheb
M in
Amun, Mut,
realisation that rock
tombs were proving
economical and more secure than the
to
earlier
thus promising 'eternal' existence, were
necropolis of the capital at Giza, but
more
all
and quarry walls there
desert escarpments
Taweret, Thoth
ideal location. At first they followed the
Amun-Re, Thoth
factors later
especially in
the necropoleis of officials in Upper Egypt.
Khonsu, Sobek,
be more
mastabas,
The steep offered an
model of the
King,Amun-Re,
mastaba (niched facade, corridor surrounding the rock interior - as at Tehna), but an independent type soon
Ennead, Re-Horakhty
developed, with an entrance in the centre giving onto a
King, Amun, Ptah
the 6th Dynasty onwards this
transverse hall with a false
door
mouth
King, Ptah, Ptah-
pillared hall. The
Tatenen, Hathor
originally located in a side-room
in the west wall.
was enlarged
From
into a
of the burial shaft
behind the
was
false door,
The
Wadi el-Sebu'a
Ramesses
II
King, Re-Horakhty
but later was situated in the floor in front of
Derr
Ramesses
II
King, Re-Horakhty,
serdab was replaced by closeable statue recesses. There
Amun-Re, Ptah
a clear
King, Re-Horakhty,
intensify the
Amun-Re, Ptah
means of columns and emphasis on
Hathor, queen, king
then slowed down, due to
Abu Simbel
Ramesses
Abu Simbel
Ramesses
II
II
it.
is
tendency from the 6th Dynasty onwards to
monumental nature of difficult
the structure, by
the central axis; this
economic conditions,
El-Siririya
Merenptah
Hathor, queen
until the 11th Dynasty.
Gebel Barkal B 200
Taharqa
Gebel Barkal B 300
Taharqa
Amun Amun
Sharuna (Kom el-Ahmar), Tehna el-Gebel, Gebel
Speos Artemidos
Alexander IV
Hathor
Zawyet el-Mayitin, Sheikh
Athribis
Graeco-Roman
Asklepios
Meir, Deir el-Gebrawi, El-Hawawish and Salamuni,
Tehna
Nero
Hathor
Hagarsa, Qasr wa'1-Saiyad (First Intermediate Period),
Principal necropoleis: Giza, Saqqara, Deshasha,
Sa'id,
el-Teir,
Quseir el-Amarna,
Rock tomb
202
Qurna, Gebelein
Intermediate Period), Mo'alla
(First
Aswan
Intermediate Period), Hierakonpolis and
(First
(Qubbet el-Hawa). Bibliography: Vandier,
Manuel
293-322; H. Altenmuller,
1/1
Other important necropoleis are those of Beni Hasan, El-Bersha, Meir, Durunka, Deir Rifa, Qurna and Aswan. Bibliography: Helmut Brunner, Die Anlage der dgyptischen Felsgraber
in:
Schulz, Egypt 78-93.
bis
zum
Mittleren Reich (Gliickstadt 1936); Hans-Wolfgang Muller,
Die Felsengraber der Fiirsten von Elephantine aus der Zeit des 2.
Middle Kingdom
From
the
1
1th
Upper Egyptian
flourish as an
monumental
real
Mittleren Reiches (Gliickstadt 1940); Vandier,
Dynasty onwards, the rock tomb started
to
form with
architectural
causeway. Following the concept of the tomb as the of
deceased,
the
it
was
provided
monumental antechamber with polygonal plant
columns; a roof
at the front
Manuel
323-357;
1/1
Die Architektur (Mainz 1971)
Tarif (Maim 1976); Shedid,
in:
in El-
Schulz, Egypt 118-131.
Some
rock tombs are accessed by a form of valley temple and
house
Jnj.jtj.f.
36-48; Dieter Arnold, Die Grdber des Alten und Mitteren Reiches
pretensions, attracting the admiration
of passers-by, as suggested by facade inscriptions.
a
Dieter Arnold, Das Grab des
with
a
pillars or
imitated the roof of a
house. At the back there was an accessible cult area
3.
New Kingdom
This period's most important necropolis of rock tombs that
on the West Bank
at
Thebes (Dra Abu
is
el-Naga,
Khokha, Sheikh Abd el-Qurna and Qurnet Murrai). The
and occasional usurpation of Middle
close proximity
consisting of a hall orientated along the axis of the tomb,
Kingdom tombs ensured contact with earlier examples. The clearest indication of this is the continuing strict
which emphasised the direction towards the statue niche
adherence to the old T-shaped plan, with a transverse
now
(which
replaces the false door) at the centre of the
The
rear wall (cult target).
supported on
ceiling
pillars or plant
is
slightly arched,
columns, and
painted
is
with splendid carpet patterns. At
saff
First
Intermediate Period and the
tombs were
built
Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
and Meketre) were
model of
at
several large
built to a
saff tombs.
El-Tarif.
The
In
tombs
door
Amenuser) the Middle
(Inyotef,
Dagi
between the wide
pillared hall and the short corridor leading to the cult
pyramid temple
with a statue niche or
A
are often found facing each other
end of the transverse
hall.
and
stela
a
on the short
The tomb facade
could be niched or have a false door (Puyemre,
Dynasty
1th
type partly derived from the
interaction
chamber had already appeared
false
the reign of
1
hall, finishing
separate statue chapel as the cult target.
walls at either
Thebes rock tombs developed independently.
During the
room and deep
portico,
or,
following the tradition of rock tombs of
Kingdom,
it
might be broken up by a pillared
and have a row of frieze bricks (funerary cone)
A
along the top.
frequent feature above the facade
is
a
pyramid (Deir el-Medina, Nebwenenef). reign of Amenhotep III onwards, high officials
small brick
From
the
of
keenly imitated the size and furnishings of royal temples:
Khafre. This type was modified under Mentuhotep
transverse halls had up to four rows of eight, or three
Nebhepetre, to become corridor
in the
firstly a pillared
and numerous
tomb with
a deep
burial chambers. Alongside
it,
probably in the later part of the king's reign, the precursor of the corridor
tomb appeared, with
a simple
smooth
facade and cult and burial complexes deep inside the for
example the tombs of Inyotef-iqer (TT
60),
hill,
Khety
(TT 311), Ipi (TT 315), Meru (TT 240), Harhotep (TT 314) and Queen Neferu (TT319). The corridor, cult
rows of
fifteen,
columns: the deep
hall of the
tomb of
Amenemhat Surer was expanded into a veritable avenue of columns. Ideally,
been covered with
all
available wall surfaces
would have
paintings or inscriptions.
reliefs,
As the 18th Dynasty continued, the underground burial apartments
adoption
found
of,
became more important through
or references
in kings'
tombs
to,
the
architectural elements
(bent axis, upper and lower
tombs were
tombs, sarcophagus hall with pillars, Osiris tomb).
decorated and inscribed. The approach to the burial
These enlarged burial apartments may have remained
complexes of larger tombs occasionally took several
accessible after the burial for the observance of certain
chambers and burial chambers
in these
The frequently twisting descent
changes or reverses of direction, intended to represent the
funerary
paths of the underworld. This feature anticipates similar
subterranean burial systems
tendencies in the rock tombs of the
The
largest
New Kingdom.
examples of Upper Egyptian rock tombs
are those of the
nomarchs of Asyut and
Qaw
el-Kebir,
with their temple-like dimensions. They represent the
rites.
journey of the sun god
in the
Amarna and Ramesside
may
to the
well represent the
underworld. From the post-
periods, a type developed with
an angled descent leading
to the burial
chamber, either
at
the end or in the middle. This trend particularly
end of the chain of development from the temple of
influenced the large Theban tombs of the Late Period
Mentuhotep
and, together with a corresponding change
to the
temple of Hatshepsut.
in
the
Rock tomb construction decorative cult
programme, removed the separation of the
and burial parts of the tomb and the representation
of 'this world' and the underworld, to the
moving
the emphasis
admission of the deceased among the gods.
Of particular
architectural interest are the
(TT
61),
(TT
93),
Ramose (TT
Surer (TT 48),
Other important necropoleis are
192).
Amarna, El-Kab and Hierakonpolis.
at
Bibliography: C.S. Fisher,
Pennsylvania, The
A group
Museum
of Theban tombs,
in:
University of
Journal 15 (1924) 28-49; M. Wegner,
Stilentwicklung der thebanischen Beamtengraber,
in:
They remained
depictions.
MDAIK 4
decorative and textual
upper and lower tombs, with
hall
astronomical
accessible for the performance
(
programmes
The elaborate
are developments of
older models.
The most important examples
User
55),
Senenmut (TT 71), Ineni (TT 81), Qenamun Nebwenenef (TT 157), Parennefer (TT 188)
and Kheruef (TT
as the bent axis,
of various rites during mortuary festivals.
tombs of
Tjay (TT 23), Puyemre (TT 39), Amenemopet (TT 41),
Amenemhat
Kingdom, such
and vaulted sarcophagus
203
are the
tombs of
Harwa (TT 37), Karabasken and Karakhamun (TT 391 and TT 223), Montuemhat (TT 34), Pedamenophis (TT
33),
(TT
279), Padihorresnet
Nespeqashuty (TT
Sheshonq (TT
312), Ibi
(TT
(TT
36),
and Padineith (TT
27)
important necropoleis are
at
Pabasa
Ankhhor (TT
196),
414),
197). Other
Giza and Saqqara.
Bibliography: Dieter Eigner, Grabbauten.
1933)
38- 1 64; Georg Steindorff and Walther Wolf, Die thebanische Graberwelt (Gluckstadt 1936); Charles 1965); D. Eigner,
Unteragypten: J.
F.
Nims, Thebes of the Pharaohs (London
Das thebanische Grab des Amenhotep, Wesir von
die
Architektur,
in:
MDAIK
39
39-50;
(1983)
Assmann, Das Grab mit gewundenem Abstieg. Zum Typenvvandel des
Privat-Felsgrabes K.J.
Seyfried,
im Neuen
Reich,
in:
MDAIK
5.
in:
ASAE
in:
MDAIK 45
Typologie des Felsgrabes, zur Archaologie
in:
(1989) 109-132; W. Schenkel, Zur
Thebanische Beamtennekropolen, Studien
und Geschichte Altagyptens 12 (Heidelberg 1995)
169-183; Friederike Kampp, Die thebanische Nekropole (Mainz 1996);
Karl-Joachim
Kammern, Nischen
Seyfried,
und
Passagen
Magna and
in
the
Bibliography: H.
Abou
el-Atta,
The
tombs and the Alexandrian hypogea,
relation in:
between the Egyptian
£716(1972) 11-19.
71
(1987) 229-249; E. Dziobek, Eine Grabpyramide des friihen Neuen Reiches in Theben,
era are found at Alexandria,
western oases.
40 (1984) 277-290);
Theben,
in
this
Salamuni, Sawada, Taposiris
Bemerkungen zur Erweiterung der unterirdischen
Anlagen einiger Graber des Neuen Reiches
Graeco-Roman Period
Rock tombs of
in
Rock tomb construction Rock tombs were
created, like
underground stone
quarries, by removing the rock in stages. central axis
below the intended
First,
on the
ceiling level, a tunnel
was
driven into the rock along the axis of the tomb, as the basis for the rest of the layout. Side-tunnels were cut into
and then backwards,
Felsgrabern des Neuen Reiches, Stationen. Beitrdge zur Kulturgeschichte
the rock to either side of
Agyptens (Mainz 1998) 387-406; N. and H. Strudwick, Thebes
direction of the entrance, deepening the structure by
in
Egypt
it
in the
gradual removal of the rock. Where possible, excavated
(London 1999) 139-173.
rock material was utilised for construction purposes. 4.
Late Period, see also
Thebes
This situation
The Theban tombs of the 25th and 26th Dynasties
among
the
most important architectonic
Late Period, exceeding size
all
the earlier
legacies of the
Theban tombs
and splendour of furnishings. They
situated
on the slope of the
hill,
are
in
royal
.
of pillared halls
initial stage
tombs
of construction
was the excavation of a
central nave,
followed by carving out recesses between the planned
no longer
pillars,
these spaces finally being joined at the rear of the
pillars.
The
are
They
are
modelled on the
mortuary temples and Osiris tombs of the New
Kingdom. A niched brick
attested to in several unfinished
but are set in the valleys
of the northern and southern Assasif to allow space for their extensive superstructures.
(
is
Beni Hasan, Amarna) The
wall, with
pylon, surrounds the courtyarcf, which
an east-facing is
composed of
picks, final
bladed
walls were prepared using coarse chisels or
smoothing being provided by the use of a
chisel. Before the final
gaps were
filled
flat-
smoothing, any voids and
with gypsum. Poor quality rock often
required the walls to be faced with limestone or
mud. Decorative designs were
plastered with
laid out in
three parts: a festival court, a court of offerings (with a
red paint, the details to be worked being outlined in
sun court
black. Carving
which
is
situated below)
and the
final section,
below
the dwelling of the deceased. Entrance stairs
lead from the outside to an antechamber
court with the
door
recess, leading into the
and painting often
started before the
rough work had been completed. Given uninterrupted
tombs could be built and decorated within
and the sun
progress, large
monumental
only a few years. Lack of lighting and fresh air and the
four-pillared hall and from there into the offering hall
problems of dragging the excavated rock
beyond. The burial apartments, situated
imposed on
have adopted features of the kings'
at a
tombs
lower of the
level,
New
shafts depth limits of
extent of subterranean systems
to the surface
30-40
was limited
m
and the
to a
depth of
Roof
204
150-200 m. Labourers said to have faint,
worked
in royal
and
'left
was provided by
tombs formed two gangs
right'.
Lighting, albeit only
lamps.
oil
roofs were often used in domestic buildings
Kingdom onwards and are found as well as in the
tomb
in
of Shepseskaf and related
Bibliography: E. Mackay, The cutting and preparation of tomb-
monuments.
chapels in the Theban Necropolis,
were placed on kiosks (kiosk of Augustus).
F.
Teichmann,
in:
JEA
Erik Hornung, Ed., Das Grab des
in:
7
(1921)
154-168;
Haremhab im
Tal der
Intriguing, slightly arched
Bibliography: Clark,
AEM
974-976. Good views of roofs
at Thebes in the Ramesside Period (Cairo 1973); Jaroslav Cerny, The
Rodenbeck, Egypt,
Grabbau,
M.
Miiller,
Neuen
in:
Helck,
Zum
Reiches,
LA
Werkverfahren an thebanischen Grabwanden des
in:
SAK
Grab des Ineni Theben
13 (1986) 149-165; Eberhard Dziobek,
Nr. 81
Gift of the Nile.
in:
in:
roofs
Helck,
LA
I
Guido Alberto Rossi and Max
An Aerial Portrait (New York
1
992).
Grabbauten 81-86; D.Arnold,
847-851; Arnold, Building 211-218;
II
wooden
154-161; G. Haeny, Dach,
Konige (Bern 1971) 32-37; Jaroslav Cerny, A Community of Workmen
Valley of the Kings (Cairo 1973); Eigner,
from the Old
some early mastabas,
Das
Roof chapel A cult building the
(Mainz 1992)18-28.
found on the roofs of larger temples.
Astronomical observation was carried out on the roofs of
pyramid temples
of the Old Kingdom, and a zodiac
circle in the ceiling of the
Ramesseum
served the same
purpose. Structures associated with the sun cult were built
on the roofs of New Kingdom temples (Akhmenu),
and, similarly, on top of temples of the Ptolemaic period
were erected kiosks, used in the
ritual of the unification
of divine images with the sun disc. to
have survived
is
of Dendera, which has 12
completed
the presence at planned
The only roof chapel
the roofless kiosk on top of the temple
many
Hathor-headed columns, but other temples of stairs for
processions to the roof suggests the existence of chapels there too.
Two
Osiris
chambers are
built into the roof of
the temple at Dendera.
J
c
Bibliography: Borchardt, Tempel mit Umgang\4-\7; R. Stadelmann,
Dachtempel,
in:
Helck,
LA
I
979; W. Helck, Tempeldach,
in:
Helck,
LA
VI 377.
Method of constructing a rock tomb
Roof In
Egyptian architecture of historic times, roofs are
almost without exception tall
flat
and usually surrounded by
side-walls, in the case of houses allowing
used as living space, and for cult practices
in the case
them
to
be
of temples to be used
(roof chapel). Hence, they were usually
accessible by stairs. For roof construction see ceiling
construction. In brick constructions, the upper surface
was made watertight by architecture this
Roof chapel of the temple of Hathor
at
Dendera
a mud-plaster layer; in stone
was often achieved by paving, using
(irregular) slabs over the ceiling slabs.
The surface was
sometimes provided with complicated drainage systems
Roof drainage, see also drainage, water spouts Despite sparse rainfall, Egyptian buildings are usually
watertight by the
provided with elaborate drainage systems. These are
insertion of patching stones. Irregular ceiling height
particularly well preserved in the case of temple roofs,
(roof drainage). Joints were
made
temple, Karnak) and
where rain water from the highest point of the roof is channelled downwards through sloping surfaces and
windows. Depictions of
gutters, before being finally released, as far as possible
early forms of roof are preserved in hieroglyphic signs
away from the building, through water spouts, which
occasionally
connected by
produced stairs
(Ramesses
was sometimes used and
with
roofs
to
fit
in
III
also in the shapes of shrines
stepped
levels
and sarcophagi. Vaulted
project
from the top of the walls of the temple, usually
'Russian doll' technique
Rooms, function of The function of nearly every room determined by a
cultic or
1
205
in a cult building
is
symbolic purpose. This was
terms of layout and form, and by means of architectural decoration and wall painting. The latter either depicts the procedures which took clearly indicated in
place in the
room
or refers to
its
function in
some
metaphoric way (symbolism). Thus, the cosmically 'correct' selection
was an important
programmes
and arrangement of divine images factor.
The decorative and
reconstruct the functions of
textual
temples enable one to
in well-preserved
all
the
rooms (Sety Is
Abydos temple, Edfu, Dendera). In secular buildings, too, the function of individual
rooms, such as bedrooms, bathrooms (bath) or grain stores, can be determined
from
their particular form.
Bibliography: Arnold, Wandreliefi Richard H. Wilkinson, Symbol and
Magic
in
Egyptian Art (London 1994) 60-81.
'Russian doll' technique The
practice of placing various structures one inside the
other, with the intention of providing a protective or
symbolic
shell
around the space,
is
a
common
feature
of Egyptian architecture, the purpose being to proWater channels and
light shafts
on the roof of the temple of Sety
I
at
vide protection or to express
There were
Qurna
artificial hills
some symbolic meaning.
under the
fill
of the core of a
mastaba; niched mastabas were cased with smooth near the bottom edge of the cavetto cornice (Iseum, Fig.). Intricate
guttering systems are preserved in the
roofs of the temples of Sety
I
at
Qurna and Abydos, and
those of the Graeco-Roman period (Philae).
From
Middle Kingdom, penetration of rain water
prevented
by means of special covering of raised edges around light holes.
is
joints in the roof
the
and
The temple of Dakka has
walls
(Saqqara S 3505); step mastabas formed the core
of true pyramids; the
Lower Egyptian Per-nu was placed
inside niched divine fortresses (sarcophagi of the
12th Dynasty); and four different types of shrine were built
one inside the other over the sarcophagus of
Tutankhamun. A
distinctive design element in the
construction of step mastabas was the placing of sloping
a bridge-like aqueduct below the roofing slabs to carry
mantles of masonry against each side of the tower-
rain water to the outside.
like core.
Bibliography: Clark,
AEM
154-161; Deir Chelouit, Plates 41-42.
Bibliography: Ricke, Bemerkungen
1
10-1
1.
s
Saff tomb
Sacred lake Most Egyptian sanctuaries have an water, such as a
body of
artificial
pond with rounded corners (Maru
A form
of rock tomb (Ar. saff= row) local to the area between Dendera and Gebelein, and particularly to the
temple), a T-shaped pool in front of the facade, a
Theban
horseshoe-shaped pond
as to the Old
(at the
temple of a lion god or
goddess), a ring of water creating an
artificial island
or an
actual sacred lake, in the form of a rectangular basin,
surrounded by a access.
The
lake
wall, with (a late
development) steps for
was surrounded by gardens of trees and
site
of El-Tarif. Earlier forms extend back as far
Kingdom, but they
really flourished
the First Intermediate Period and the
largest saff tombs at El-Tarif belong to Inyotef
tombs
between
1th Dynasty.
1
I
The
— III (kings'
of the 11th Dynasty). Their forecourts, which
were up
to
300
m
m wide, were
long and 75
cut
4-5
m
served to beautify the house of the god(s), as well as
deep into the hard marl of the fore-desert. Along the side-
being used for excursions of the cult barques and the
walls there were entrances leading to the
performance of special
tombs of the
the birth of the god(s)
about
rituals (such as cult plays
and
their victory over enemies).
It
also served to represent mythological areas of water.
face
was
row of 20-24
a double
pillars.
from there leading
pillars,
to the burial
with a further corridor
chamber. Situated
entrance to the court of the tomb of
was a brick-built
Size(m)
Site
Period/reign
Karnak
from Thutmosis
Month
Amenhotep
A corridor on the
central axis (very occasionally decorated) led to a cult
chamber supported by two Sacred lakes (preserved)
chambered
royal household. Standing along the rear
cult chapel
Wahankh
at the
Inyotef
II
(perhaps representing a link
between the valley temple of the Old Kingdom pyramid
precinct
III
III
77 x 120
precincts
16x18
years').
(Karnak)
at least
and the valley temple of 'houses of millions of
The
kings'
tombs
at El-Tarif
were surrounded by
250 private tombs, undecorated apart from white
I
50x60
plaster and stelae, which were the precursors of the rock
(?)
26x30
tombs of the
Tanis
Nectanebo
Armant
Ptolemaic
Dendera
Roman
28x33
Medamud
Roman
15x17
El-Tod
Roman
11.5x16.2
1
1th
and 12th Dynasties
Thebes, which
at
Other sacred lakes are attested to in texts or visible in the landscape (Sais, Bubastis, Heliopolis, Hermopolis,
Abydos, Edfu and
others).
1
o4.
\
Ponds or basins of water surrounded by gardens near tombs,
to
(Khentkawes
their place
I,
Amenhotep, son
was usually taken by models,
of Hapu), and in the
form of
model basins of water or miniature gardens. Bibliography: Bisson de la Roque, Le lac sacre de Tod,
in:
CdE 24
(1937) 3-14; B. Gessler-Lohr, Die heiligen Seen agyptischer Tempel
(Hildesheim 1983);
B.
791-804; H.G. Fischer,
Kingdom,
in:
Gessler-Lohr, See, hlg.,
An
in:
Helck,
LA V
invocation offering basin of the Old
MDAIK 47 (1991)
127-133.
.>'
'
H
*
'
,i>U
provide for and offer cheer to the dead, were
desirable but could only be achieved in practice in a few
cases
--'
i,'
Schematic diagram of a saff tomb
Salamuni had
a pillared facade.
The tomb of
Iti
at
Gebelein has a
facade of 14 pillars and, situated beyond the passages,
chambers roofed with
brick-built
Bibliography: Dieter Arnold, Das Grab des
Die Architektur (Mainz
1971) 36-39; Dieter Arnold, Graber des Alten undMittlerenReich.es El-Tarif (Mainz 1976); Dieter Arnold,
A.M. Donadoni Roveri
el al.,
in:
Helck,
remains are preserved of the
Significant
relief
decoration which covered every one of the inner
limestone walls of the valley and pyramid temples; the
a barrel vault. Jnj.jtj.f.
207
in
LA V 349-350;
Gebelein (Turin 1994) 45-54; N. and H.
Strudwick, Thebes in Egypt (London 1999) 92-95, 140, 146-148.
exterior walls were not decorated.
The base of
walls in
important rooms was formed of black basalt orthostats.
Door frames, columns and architraves were made of red and inscribed with sunken
granite, with green decoration
hieroglyphs. Bibliography: Borchardt, Sahu-Re; Edwards, Pyramids 174-181;
Sahure
Stadelmann, Pyramiden
This king's pyramid complex/The Ba of Sahure Appears',
Pharaohs, Abusir (Prague 1994) 68-74; Lehner, Complete Pyramids
at
Abusir,
of
its
the best preserved
is
kind.
angle of slope 50°45 five or six steps.
The
bedrock and were in the
and researched example
The base length of the pyramid ,
height 50 m.
interior
rooms
Its
core
made up
of
are located above the
an open trench purposely left
built into
as a result of the removal of the facing, to excavate
and pyramid temple
become
and
it
has not yet
them. The pyramid precinct
are the first of a pattern
typical of the 5th
which was
and 6th Dynasties. The
valley temple stands on a quay complex and has an open
entrance
with two rows of eight columns, which
hall,
leads to a T-shaped inner
room with
is
a later
annexe acting as the side-entrance
with an entrance hall of four columns. The causeway,
235
m long, leads
temple.
It
commences with
altar court
capitals.
from the valley temple a
to the
pyramid
Per-weru, followed by an
surrounded by granite columns with palm
To the west, on a levelled terrace, are a room with
five statues,
two anterooms and the funerary offering
with a false door. There
pyramid) on
is
a
;
142-144.
Sais
The
hall
secondary pyramid (cult
the south side of the temple.
site
of Sais, the capital of Egypt in the 26th Dynasty,
and home of the temple of Neith Dynasty onwards), which
now even
its
from the
(attested to
1st
on the East Bank of the
lay
Rosetta branch of the Nile. However,
destroyed that
it is
exact location
so completely
is
uncertain. In
an area of ruins near Sa el-Hagar, Champollion and Lepsius observed the traces of a central temple building,
m in size, inside an enclosure m with 28 m thick walls.
230 x 150 c.
675 x 675
measuring
Herodotus mentions large obelisks, a sacred lake,
a statue niche,
continuing from there to the entrance into the causeway.
To the south
64- 1 7 1 M. Verner, Forgotten Pyramids, Lost
78.75 m,
core masonry. These rooms have partly collapsed
been possible
to
is
is
1
the left,
tombs of kings Apries and Amasis
in the court to the
beside the main temple of Neith (which had large
palm columns), and an Osiris tomb
stone chapels with
behind the main temple building; he also described a monolithic granite naos to this site
(
10.5
m tall) of Amasis, brought
from Aswan by 2000 workers and then
left at
the entrance to the temple. This, together with the rest of the temple,
was completely destroyed
AD, and parts of it were taken
in the 14th century
to Cairo, Rosetta
and other
The family crypt of 'Psammitichos' is also mentioned by Strabo, and its existence was confirmed by
places.
the discovery nearby of the sarcophagus of Psamtek Bibliography: Herodotos,
Book
II
169-70, 175,
Texts 1-4; Strabo, Geographica 17
Monuments, (1966) 132; relatifs
in:
J.
1
18; L.
ASAE 42 (1943) 369-376;
Malek,
Sais, in:
J.
Book
III 16;
LD
II.
55,
I
Habachi, Sais and
its
Leclant, in: Orientalia 35
LA V 355-357;
R. el-Sayed,
Documents
a Sais etses divinites (Cairo 1975); R. el-Sayed, La deesse Neith
de Sais (Cairo 1982);
P.
Wilson, Sais, surveying the Royal
City, in:
Egyptian Archaeology 12 (1998) 3-6.
Salamuni High up on a
km
slope, 9
east of
Akhmim,
facade of a small rock temple of Thutmosis
was usurped and enlarged architect Nakhtmin. Ruins of the pyramid temple of Sahure excavations of 1907
at
Abusir following the
It
may
in the rule of
III,
is
the
which
Ay by
the
have been associated with
the nearby stone quarries. The inner rooms of the
temple underwent considerable alterations. Situated
Sanam (Abu Dom)
208
at the foot
of the
hill
a necropolis of
is
rock tombs
Sankhkare, temple of
dating to the Old Kingdom, the Late Period and the
Remains of a small temple on the northern
Roman
over the Valley of the Kings (Thoth
period.
Bibliography: K.P.
Kuhlmann, Der Felstempel des
MDAIK35 (1979)
165-188;
und
Ramies von Achmim (Mainz 1983) 71-86.
Geschichte des
K.P.
Eje bei
Akhmim,
in:
Kuhlmann, Materialien zurArchdologie
consists of a brick enclosure (21 x 24
known
earliest
Hill).
m)
m
towering
with one of the
brick pylons. Within
measuring 8 x 10
hill
The complex a building
is
containing three chapels standing
side-by-side with limestone shrines for the cult images.
Sanam (Abu Dom)
Dedicatory inscriptions are addressed to Horus. The
An
brick temple was built on the ruins of an older (perhaps
important Napatan palace city on the West Bank of
the Nile in the Sudan, opposite Napata, with a temple
dedicated to
Amun
by Taharqa consisting of
built
Early Dynastic) predecessor in stone. Bibliography: G. Schweinfurth, Ein neu entdeckter Tempel in Theben, in:
a
pylon, pillared hall, offering room, sanctuary and side-
Z.4S41 (1904) 22-25; W.M. Flinders
rooms, resembling the temples of Kawa and Tabo. To the
Holscher, Medinet Habu, Vol. 2 4-5; G. Voros, Temple on the Pyramid of
north
is
a vast
complex of
store
rooms (known
Thebes (Budapest 1998); G. Voros et
as the
Excavations at Thoth
'treasury'). Bibliography: Griffith,
Oxford Excavations in Nubia,
in:
in:
Adams, Nubia. Corridor
to Africa
Hill,
Thebes,
central part of the
away sharply
a
8
a
oooo o o
3
9
QE^
Preliminary Report on the
335-340.
at
Memphite necropolis between desert plateau which drops
flat
the east. North Saqqara
Early Dynastic mastabas.
ZT o
al.,
MDAIK 54 (1998)
Saqqara The
(London 1977) 274-75.
Abusir and Dahshur on a
oooo
in:
(London 1909)4-6;
Annals of
Archaeology and Anthropology 9 (Liverpool 1921/22) 74-76; William Y.
Petrie, Qurne/i
occupied by the
is
The mastabas of the Old
oooooo
Kingdom
o o
o o
precinct of Djoser
o
o
necropoleis of
o
o
Shepseskaf. The area south of the Unas causeway
are in the central area,
grouped around the
and the pyramids of Teti, Userkaf and
Unas. At South Saqqara are the pyramid precincts and
oooooo
Pepy
I,
Merenre, Djedkare, Pepy
occupied by tombs of the
II
II
and
New Kingdom and
is
the
Monastery of Apa Jeremias. North-west of the precinct of Djoser
is
the
Serapeum. An Anubieion,
a
Bubasteion
60
and an Asklepieion with extensive animal cemeteries Plan of the
Amun
temple built by Taharqa
at
Sanam
were constructed during the Late Period inside large brick enclosures along the eastern edge of the desert
Sandstone
North Saqqara; cutting through the
Compacted sedimentary
made up
rock,
mainly of quartz but also containing
of fine grains,
feldspar, splinters of
rock and mica.
It
was favoured
specific gravity
is
2.0-2.65. This material
as a building stone.
architecturally in the 'High Sand' at
(possibly in the early Old Kingdom), but
more widespread use Deir el-Bahari.
From
in the
temple of
was
first
avenue of sphinxes which leads from
Hierakonpolis
Bibliography (general): (Cairo
in all the
J.
de Morgan, Carte de
to the
to
remain
necropole memphite
la
1897); G. Goyon, Les ports des pyramides et
canal de Memphis,
in:
RdE 23
grand
le
(1971) 137-163; Lauer, Saqqara; Jean-
Philippe Lauer, Cinquante annees a Saqqara (Cairo 1983); H.S. Smith,
previously been the norm, as the primary building
was used
at
an
completely unexplored.
first
sandstone took over from limestone, which had
it
is
Although many important monuments are known
the middle of the 18th Dynasty,
material; for example,
Memphis
exist here, considerable parts of the necropoleis
came into Mentuhotep at
it
of these
Serapeum.
Its
used
first
Saqqara,
Theban
in:
Helck,
LA V 386-430; A.M. Roth, The organization
royal cemeteries at Saqqara in the Old
Kingdom,
in:
JARCE 25
of the
(1988)
temples (except that of Hatshepsut), every temple in
201-214; Saqqara, aux origines de l'Egypte pharaonique,
Nubia and almost every Graeco-Roman temple. There
Dossiers dArcheologie 146/147 (1990); Jean-Philippe Lauer, Les
are
numerous stone quarries up-river from Esna
Nubia, particularly
at
Gebel
Klemm, Sandstein, in: Helck,IA
382-383; De Putter, Pierres 91-94; Klemm, Steine 225-281;
Nicholson, Materials 54-56.
pyramides de Sakkara (Cairo 1991
);
Les
Barta, Abusir 2000.
el-Silsila.
Bibliography: Lucas, AEM1 55-57; R.
V
to
in:
1.
Large tombs of the lst-3rd Dynasties
At the northern end of the necropolis, above the village of
Abusir, are numerous monumental brick tombs of the
Saqqara Dynasty onwards. Behind them,
1st
to the west,
565-570; H. Fischer, An Egyptian royal
a
is
mastabas of the 3rd Dynasty (Hesyre). The
of
field
Dynasty royal cemetery,
question of whether or not the 1st Dynasty tombs,
be those of high
officials,
or at
most
Museums
royal
cenotaphs. The most important tombs are (reign
Second Dynasty,
Kemp, The Egyptian
Antiquity 41 (1967) 22-32;
Egyptology 26 (1993) 47-58;
tombs has been long disputed; they are more
likely to
in:
stela of the
B.J.
Report on the work... of the 12th campaign,
excavated in 1936-56 (partly by W.B. Emery), are royal or private
Artibus Asiae 24 (1962) 45-56;
in:
I.
209
Mathieson
Discussions in
in:
et
1st
Munro,
P.
al.,
The National
of Scodand Saqqara Survey Project 1993-1995,
in:
JEA 83
(1997)17-53.
in
parentheses): S
2185 (Djer or
later)
S 3035, belonging to
Hemaka (Dewen):
east stairs, large
and deep burial chamber; important grave goods. 3038 belonging
Nebetka (possibly Anedjib), with
to
a
stepped superstructure; probably not originally a tomb.
sunken central chambers, boat
S 3357 (Hor Aha): five burial
and
model
a
S 3471 (Djer):
sand
Precinct of Djoser
3.
Old Kingdom pyramids, see names of kings
4.
Old Kingdom tombs, see mastaba
(Dewen)
S 3036 S
2.
of an estate.
sunken main central chamber;
mound
of
New Kingdom tombs
5.
There are numerous examples of monumental mortuary temple-like tombs of
New Kingdom
Unas causeway. They
are
consisting of up to three pylons
many
followed in
built in.
date south of the
m
in area, usually
and
pillared courts,
15 x 50
c.
cases by a three-room cult complex,
S 3500 (Qa a)
usually topped by a small pyramid. Superstructures are
S 3503 (Merineith)
in
S 3504 (Djet): surrounded by 350 bulls' heads.
'Memphite
S 3505 (Qa'a):
masonry
the
niched mastaba with
east stairs built into
3506 (Dewen): with a boat
S
3507 (Dewen):
mound
burial.
of sand built
in.
Three royal tomb complexes (gallery tomb) are attested to
from the second half of the 2nd Dynasty:
Hetepsekhemwy:
a)
a gallery
below the pyramid
m
long, with a corridor
temple of Unas, more than 120
blocked by four limestone portcullises and narrow
m long. There are impressions
magazines over 70 seals of
of the
MMA,
perhaps belonged to a gallery
tomb
desert to the west: the Gisr el-Mudir It is
not
known whether
and the Per-weru
Abydos
tombs
tomb complexes.
pyramide d'Ounas,
Walter
B.
in:
at
ASAE
(Tutankhamun's
the
cluster of
Tia (sister of
treasurer)
the
to
II,
Ramesses
II),
Horemheb), Maya
and Paser (master of Temple tomb,
New Kingdom rock tombs
east of the
cliffs
and
in:
ASAE 3
the First Dynasty, 3 Vols (Cairo 1949,
16-62;
H.
B.
Fig.). is
located in
pyramid of Userkaf. They date from
Kees,
important
well-preserved
wall
The most important are those of the
vizier
Bibliography: Geoffrey
(London 1989);
Kingdom and
for
1989)
1,
T.
their
Martin, The Memphite
K. A. Kitchen,
later, in:
Decouverte a
S.
Tawfiq,
T Martin, in:
Saqqarah. Le
Tomb of Horemheb
Memphite Tomb-Chapels
Agypten und
272-284; Geoffrey
(London 1991);
altes
New
The Hidden Tombs of Memphis
MDAIK 47 vizir
in the
Testament (Wiesbaden
(1991) 403-409; A. Zivie,
oublie
reconstructions: Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee
(Paris
III,
1990).
Good
86-89.
(1902) 183-184; B.
Emery,
Emery, Great Tombs of
London
are
decoration.
or whether
Emery, The Tomb of Hemaka (Cairo 1938); Walter
monumentale
Horemheb,
(military official under
construction to Ramesses
2 (1901) 250-252; Barsanti,
pyramide d'Ounas,
The Tomb ofHor-aha (Cairo 1939); Walter
Histoire
Kingdom. Tombs excavated up
King)
(later
Ramose
Bibliography: Barsanti, Rapports sur les de'blaiements operes autour la
architectural
present are those of the group belonging to General
they correspond to
they are independent royal
Fouilles autours de la
some
in
references to the valley temples
of the Old
and the 'L-shaped
the fortresses of the royal
de
and
show
on the surface of the
vast precincts are visible
enclosure'.
as
Aper-El and of the royal wet nurse Mai'a.
below the west area of the precinct of Djoser.
Two
known
innermost courtyard
the middle of the 18th Dynasty to the Ramesside period
Reneb: the stela of 'Horus Reneb' from Memphis, in the
shaft in the
cases decorated. Certain examples
Hetepsekhemwy and Reneb.
b) Ninetjer: a gallery in front of the south-east corner
c)
A
reliefs'.
leads to the underground complexes of rooms, which
A
of the precinct of Djoser.
now
cases richly decorated with what are
are often full of branching corridors,
at a later date; a cult area to the north.
S
many
1954, 1958); Lauer,
Zur Problematik des
6.
Late Period complexes
In the area
around the precinct of Djoser are numerous
vast shafts,
up
to 25
m
deep, which were constructed in
the 25-30th Dynasties. At the bottom
was a crypt roofed
52 (1957) 12-20;
with a stone vault and containing an anthropoid
H.Kees.Neues vom Archaischen Friedhof von Sakkara, OLZ 54 (1959)
sarcophagus. The shaft could be entered by a narrow
archaischen Friedhofes bei Sakkara,
in:
OLZ
210
Saw
!
side-shaft with a connecting corridor.
The
of the
lid
sarcophagus was usually lowered on props which sank into shafts of sand (lowering heavy loads,
Fig.);
the pit was subsequently completely filled with loose
sand as
robbery. There are few
a protection against
remains of superstructures. Examples are Neferibre SaNeith,
Wahibremen, Psamtek, Pentenisis and
others.
Similar complexes exist at Giza ('Campbell's tomb')
and Abusir (Wedjahorresnet). The tomb of Bakenrenef differs
from
this
form
in that
it
has an extensive
burial system. Bibliography: Edda Bresciani et
capo della flotta del
re (Pisa
al.,
The North-Saqqara temple-town 10-21; H.S. Smith and D.G. in:
La tomba
1977); H.S. Smith
Jeffreys,
survey,
in:
di Ciennehebu,
and D.G.
JEA
64
Jeffreys,
(1978)
The Anubieion, North Saqqara,
JEA 65 (1979) 17-29; Sue Davies and H.S. Smith, Sacred
animal temples
at
Saqqara,
in:
Quirke, Temple, 112-131; D. Arnold,
The Late Period tombs of Hor-Khebit, Wennefer and Wereshnefer Etudes sur I'Ancien
Saqqara,
in:
Saqqara
dediees
a
Jean-Philippe
Empire
Lauer
et
la
necropole
(Montpellier
Saw marks on
the basalt paving of the
de
1997)
joints (casing of
at a
phenomenal
Bibliography: Clark,
V
To date no saws of any significance have been found in
of a stone-cutting drag
Egypt, although their use by joiners, carpenters and boat
JARCE 28
attested to in
numerous depictions and by the
discovery of models. Marks caused by sawing also testify to their use in cutting stone
(
Jr.,
Evidence for use
1991 ) 139-148; E.-L. Schwandner, Der Schnitt
Bautechnik derAntike. Beobachtungen
zum Gebrauch
im
in:
Stein, in:
derSteinsage in
derAntike (Mainz 1991) 216-223.
from the beginnings of stone
Sawada A drawing produced by
and the sun temple of Niuserre
(alabaster). Large blocks of granite, like sarcophagi and their lids, are likely to have
been cut by free-swinging
'Saouadeh' in beautiful
the French expedition near
Middle Egypt (opposite Minya) depicts
underground rock tomb,
with Doric
columns and an
atrium-like
complex, comparable to the rock tombs
two adjacent blocks was frequently
has completely vanished since that time.
adjusted by sawing in order to provide better fitting
Reconstruction of a device for sawing stone (after R.G. Moores
Jr)
Bibliography: Description
IV, 68.
a
Hellenistic in style,
drag saws. Machine-like arrangements are conceivable. front edge of
have
saw by the Fourth Dynasty Egyptians,
pyramid of Khufu (basalt paving, granite sarcophagus,
The
likely to
rate.
33-34; Arnold, Building 266-277; R.G. Moores
construction: the precinct of Djoser (limestone), the
granite portcullis),
Giza
AEM 203-204; R. Drenkhahn, Sage, in: Helck, LA
Saw
is
at
Unas pyramid, joint). Quartz sand was
used as an abrasive agent. Saw blades are
worn out
31-54.
builders
pyramid temple of Khufu
at
sun court. The at
Alexandria,
1
Screen wall
Scaffolding
made from
light poles
used
producing statues, as depicted
in
in the
tomb of Rekhmire
Scaffolding
Fig.),
Light-pole scaffolding was used by stonemasons and
kiosks and pronaoi,
sculptors, less for the raising of
heavy loads than
to
enable the smoothing and decoration of wall areas and the construction of scaffolding
columns and colossal
statues.
The
was reinforced with ropes of twine and
anchored deep into paving or rocky ground, holes being visible
to
this
21
their
and
also those in
Graeco-Roman birth houses,
some
of
monumental proportions,
passageways interestingly arranged. The surface
area of screen walls provided plenty of space for
decoration and inscriptions. Bibliography:
Schranken,
in:
Many examples Helck,
in: Jequier, Architecture; D.
Wildung,
LA 690-693.
day (pyramid temple of Khufu,
Mentuhotep temple, hypostyle temple at Medinet Habu, tomb
hall of Ramesses of
absence of scaffold holes (putlogs)
Ill's
Montuemhat). The
in
Egyptian masonry
shows that suspended or bracketed scaffolding was not
W
in
use. Large areas of wall, like those of the pyramids, could
not in any case have been covered with scaffolding. Bibliography: Clark,
AEM
194-195; Holscher, Medinet Habu IV
32-33; Arnold, Building 231-236.
Screen wall
A
type of screen, with
suspended
its
origins in reed
wooden
between
posts,
matting
was
which
represented in stone in the precinct of Djoser. Spaces
between the
pillars of
Kingdom and by
a
the
barque stations from
New Kingdom
the Middle
were regularly
filled in
low parapet, with either a rounded or a square
The screen walls between statue
pillars or
temples and tombs of the
New Kingdom
sophisticated (Ramesses
temples
Ill's
and Karnak, the tomb of Tutu
at
at
top.
columns
in
more
are
Medinet Habu
Amarna).
In the
Ethiopian period, screen walls in kiosks in front of
pylons protected the
interior
from view: they are
taller
than a man's height, up to one half to two thirds the height of the column, topped with a cavetto cornice and frieze of uraei, with the shaft of the
column protruding. Roman
There are beautiful screen walls of black granite in the
Screen wall in the
26th and 30th Dynasty temples of the Delta (Philae,
cornice and frieze of uraei
birth house at Dendera, topped with a
Sebennytos
212
Sebennytos
desert, at the south-east border of the Faiyum.
Sebennytos (Samannud) Delta.
It
is
situated in the middle of the
was the home of the historian Manetho (around
290 BC) and the capital of Egypt during the reign of
Nectanebo
I.
From here
the rulers of the 30th Dynasty
originally 20.4
m
a seated figure of the king.
found and there
Persians, erecting of a chain of important temples
function of the building.
throughout the country The Phersos (Per-shu), the chief
I.
new
decoration was begun in the reign of Nectanebo
Its
and was only completed under
Philip Arrhidaeus
is
211-214;
II,
F.
BC
MRA
rooms have been
interior
in:
ASAE
1 (
1900)
55-56; Lauer, Histoire monumentale 222-225;
II
Gomaa, Gebel er-Rus,
Helck,
in:
49-50; L.H. Lesko, Seila 1981,
LA
II
440; Dreyer, Stufenpyramiden
JARCE 25
in:
(1988) 223-235.
and
Ptolemy II. The Arab geographer and historian El-Maqrizi
(AD 1364-1442) could
No
no information concerning the
Bibliography: L. Borchardt, Die Pyramide von Silah,
building of Nectanebo
but was interrupted by the Persian invasion of 343
with an angle of slope of
in height
13-15°. There are the remains of two stelae, a naos and
launched their 'Egyptian Revival' movement against the
temple of Onuris-Shu, was a
The base
measures 60 cubits (31.5 m) and the pyramid was
.-1-
describe the Phersos as an
still
Egyptian masterpiece, but
was dismantled soon
it
modern times about 40 decorated
afterwards. Until
blocks, of quartzite, basalt
and granite, were
still
to
be
some of which have now made their way into foreign museums and the local store house at Samannud. The site itself, as well as the kings' tombs of the 30th seen,
Dynasty, which were probably situated within the temple precinct, have so far not
undergone any archaeological
investigation. Bibliography: C.C. Edgar and G. Roeder, Der Isistempel von Behbet, in:
10m
Recueil de Travaux 35 (1913) 89-1 16; A. Kamal, Sebennytos et son
temple, in: in:
ASAE
ASAE 7
( 1
906) 87-94; A. Kamal, The Temple of Samanoud,
11 (1911) 90-96; G. Steindorff, Reliefs
Samanud,
Journal of the
in:
Walters Art Gallery (1944-45) 39-59; N. Spencer, at
The temple of
Egyptian Archaeology 14 (1999) 7-9;
in:
J.-P.
Lauer)
from the temples of
Sebennytos and Iseion in American Collections,
Onuris-Shu
Section through the step pyramid of Sneferu at Seila (after
Sekhemkhet, funerary complex of The unfinished funerary complex of king Djoser Sekhemkhet, the successor of Djoser,
is
south-west of the precinct of Djoser.
Arnold, Temples 127-128.
It
situated to the
has a north-
south orientation and originally covered an area of 185 x
Sedeinga (Adaya) An extensive archaeological
262 m,
on the West Bank of the
site
between the Second and Third Cataracts, 5
Nile
of Soleb, with the built
now
by Amenhotep
collapsed remains of a temple
spouse Tiye, identified
III for his
with Isis-Hathor. There the temple, a closed
km north
a kiosk in front of the facade of
is
pronaos with two rows of four
later
enlarged
length of 545 m.
at the
north and south to a total
The north
niched decoration
still
(older) wall has beautiful
good
in a
against the core at a slope of
c.
burial chamber, at a depth of 32
open construction
area
is lost.
Excavations carried out in the 1960s have not
been published. Bibliography: in:
Helck,
ID
15°.
It
was intended
consist of seven steps, reaching to a height of c. 70
Hathor columns with channelled
The sanctuary
is
constructed in the form of 14 mantles, which are placed
columns and a hypostyle hall beyond which has 16 shafts.
state of preservation.
The (unfinished) step mastaba (122 x 122 m)
m, was not
set into
shaft, like that of Djoser,
to
m. The an
but was
means of a sloping corridor. The chamber undamaged and sealed, but empty, alabaster sarcophagus (perhaps for a queen). The burial chamber constructed by
contains an 1
1
14-15,
III
LA V 780-781; M.
Fouilles a Sedeinga, in:
82, Text
V
228-30;
J.
Leclant, Sedeinga,
Schiff-Giorgini, Premiere
Campagne de
Kush 13 (1965) 112-115; M. Schiff-Giorgini
is
surrounded on the west, north and east by a U-shaped
set of corridors
the
14(1966)244-261.
with a total of 136 magazines. Buried in
South Tomb
is
the
body
of a child.
Dummy
buildings, typical of the Djoser precinct, are absent here.
The precinct
Seila
Remains of
a small step
mastaba
of Sneferu, consisting
of three steps, situated at Gebel el-Rus on the edge of the
still
awaits complete investigation.
Bibliography: Zakaria Goneim, The Buried
Pyramid (London 1956);
Zakaria Goneim, Horus Sekhem-khet, The Unfinished Step Pyramid at
Senenmut, tombs of Sakkara Lauer,
I
funeraire de l'Horus Sekhem-khet,
rendus de I'Academie des Inscriptions J.P.
monumentale 179-206;
(Cairo 1957); Lauer, Histoire
Au complexe
et Belles-lettres
( 1
in:
I
213
J.P.
Comptes
967 ) 493-5 1 0;
tombeau sud de l'Horus
Lauer, Recherche et decouverte du
Sekhem-khet dans son complexe funeraire a Saqqarah,
RdE
in:
20
(1968) 97-107; BIFAO 36 (1955) 357-364, 48/49 (1969) 121-131;
MRA
13- 19, Addenda
II
I
and
II.
Plan of the chapel of Thutmosis
III in
the fortress of
Semna
Senenmut, tombs of Senenmut had two rock tombs act as a
complement
to
complexes. The cult complex,
Qurna, has
built at
Thebes, which
each other as cult and burial
TT
71, in
Sheikh Abd
beyond which
a high terraced frontage
elis
a
pylon-like niched facade with a door in the centre and Remains of the northern enclosure wall of the funerary complex of
Sekhemkhet
at
Saqqara
two
by
sets of four
windows
in the recesses.
a transverse hall divided
This
is
followed
by two groups of four pillars
into four halls, each with a different type of ceiling,
Semna A
probably
border fortress of
Amenemhat
on the West Bank of the It
Nile,
km
60
and Senwosret
I
III
south of Wadi Haifa.
stands on a rock plateau, and has an L-shaped plan
135
m
long. Towers jut out
the fortress
is
Middle Kingdom, which was Hatshepsut and Thutmosis deified Senwosret
important
from the
III
and dedicated
and the god Dedun.
decoration
wall
and
and was probably intended
by a portico, as but
it
at the
temples of
under
stone,
rebuilt, in
III
It
contains
extended to
The the
at
be surrounded
Amada
remained unfinished. Next
the
to
inscriptions.
elongated barque sanctuary was rear
walls. Inside
chapel originally dating from the
a
to
representing
different
types
chapel
of
(Puyemre). A high, narrow passage leads back
to a statue
niche set high up in the rear wall. The burial complex, 353,
is
situated in the Hatshepsut stone
consists of a steep staircase
chambers.
room
It
and
TT
quarry and
a total of four rock
unfinished, with only the uppermost
is
decorated, with religious texts and an astronomical
ceiling.
However, the sarcophagus was not found in
TT
353,butinTT71. Dorman, The Monuments of Senenmut:
Bibliography: Peter
F.
Problems
Methodology (London 1988); Peter
in Historical
F.
Dorman,
The Tombs of Senenmut (New York 1991).
and Buhen,
this,
and
built
over an earlier building of the 18th Dynasty, stands a
brick temple of Taharqa. 110 is
m
south-west of
Semna
structure with a keep
a rectangular fort-like
and
dry moat. The temple was moved to Khartoum 1963-65;
the
assessment was
opportunity lost
to
make
and the history of
its
a
in
structural
construction
thus remains unclear. Bibliography: Fortresses, in:
Janssen,
ID
III
JEA
47-56;
S.
3 (1916)
Clarke, Ancient Egyptian Frontier
169-172; Dows
Semna Kumma, Second
5-73; K. Zibelius-Chen, Semna,
Dunham and
Jozef
Cataract Forts, Vol.1 (Boston 1960) in:
Helck,
LA V 843-844;
Hein,
Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 49-51; Ricardo A. Caminos, Semna-
Reconstructed view through the transverse hall of the tomb of
Kumma, 2 Vols (London
Senenmut (TT 71)
1998).
at
Thebes
(after
P.
Dorman)
214
Senwosret
I,
pyramid of Senwosret The
pyramid of
I,
pyramid
precinct
'United
now known
as El-Lisht.
It
the
are
Kheperkare' was erected by Senwosret
Places
was conceived as a
development of the complexes of the
of
near the place
I
direct
Old Kingdom.
late
The core of the pyramid 'Senwosret Surveys the Two
m
Lands' (61.25
high, with an area of 105 x 105 sq m),
consists of rough stone
masonry strengthened by
radial
support walls and encased with Tura limestone; the slope is
49°24'.
The entrance corridor
is
built of
granite but
is
only accessible as far as the level of the sub-soil water. The
chamber has never been investigated. The pyramid temple differs from its Old Kingdom precursors in its lack of storage rooms. A new feature is the inner
burial
enclosure wall of limestone, which was decorated inside
and
outside, at intervals of 4.24
m, with 100
representations of the king's Horus name, each one 5
m
high, above the palace facade. Within the outer enclosure wall are nine secondary pyramids, later for
female
members
some
of them added
of the royal family,
Queen Neferu and Princess
Itakayet.
limestone images of Senwosret
I
among them
A group
(now
of 10 seated
in the
Egyptian
Museum, Cairo) was found in the courtyard by J.E. Gautier in 1894/95. A causeway to the east leads to the valley temple, which has not yet been located. pillars in the causeway were
added
Some
statue
at a later stage to
mark
the precinct as a sed-kstWal complex. Reconstruction of the tomb of Senenmut (TT 71
)
at
Thebes
(after
P.
Bibliography:
Dorman)
J.E.
Gautier and G. Jequier, Fouilles de Lkht (Cairo
1902); Edwards, Pyramids 218-225; Dieter Arnold, The South
™ /tmS Reconstruction of the pyramid temple of Senwosret
I
at El-Lisht
Senwosret Cemeteries of Lisht Felix Arnold,
I:
The Pyramid of Senwosret
The South Cemeteries of Lisht
I
(New York
1988);
The Control Notes and
II:
Team Marks (New York 1990); Dieter Arnold, The South Cemeteries of Lisht
III:
The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret I
(
New York
1
99 1 ).
by 42
and
trees,
its
III,
pyramid of
215
strengthening the association of the pyramid
burial
chamber with an Osiris tomb. The valley
temple, in the associated pyramid town of Kahun, appears not to have been linked to the pyramid. The
surrounding area contains a private necropolis, whose
Senwosret
II,
pyramid of
(lllahun, El-Lahun),
see also Kahun
north of the pyramid
The pyramid precinct 'Senwosret by Senwosret
II at
mound
is
Mighty' was erected
the entrance to the Faiyum.
masonry of the pyramid was reinforced with
(area 107 x 107
radial support walls
of rock; the angle of the slope
42°35 The entrance to the pyramid .
of a queen's
tomb and
had been the
for the first
is
The brick
is
calculated as
hidden
time
is
interior
is
and thereby represents an Osiris tomb.
Fig.). In the is
a
rooms have
is
niched
north-eastern corner of the outer
secondary pyramid, of which the yet to
tomb known
as El-
(London 1923); W.M. Flinders 24ff.; D.
and M.A. Murray,
Petrie, lllahun,
Arnold, El-Lahun,
Kahun and
Helck,
in:
LA
III
909-91 1; Edwards, Pyramids 225-226.
in the floor
not in what
The inner enclosure wall, made of limestone, (niching,
II
that of Inpy. Directly to the
the royal
Flinders Petrie, G. Brunton
Gurob (London 1891)
a
from the surrounding rock by a corridor which
courtyard there
W.M.
and stands on
traditional position: at the centre of the
it
Bibliography:
is is
621.
Lahun
sarcophagus of exceptional technical perfection and
runs around
Lahun tomb
m, height 48 m)
north side of the pyramid. The burial chamber contains a
isolated
most important tomb
be located. The pyramid
temple, which was an unusually small structure,
is
completely destroyed. The whole precinct was surrounded
Plan and section of the inner chambers of the pyramid of Senwosret
II at
Senwosret The
large
III,
pyramid of
pyramid precinct of Senwosret
III
(area 192 x
299 m), stands on a plateau north-east of the Red
Pyramid
of
Dahshur.
It
was
originally
surrounded by
two rectangular enclosure walls, both niched. At the centre stands the pyramid, area 107 x 107
64.13 m, angle of slope brick, which the
50°.
m, height
The core consisted of
was cased with limestone. The entrance
pyramid was hidden
burial
c.
in the west side,
complex containing the
vaulted granite
ceiling,
king's
which
and
chamber, with a
still
contains the
magnificent niched granite sarcophagus. To the east
El-Lahun
to
led to the
is
216
Senwosretankh, tomb of long
subterranean
chambers of
their sarcophagi;
it
containing
galleries
12 female
was
members
the
tomb
of the royal family and
here, in 1895, that
J.
de Morgan
found the jewellery of Princesses Merit and Sithathor (also in the Egyptian
Museum,
Cairo).
De Morgan, Dahchour 1894 47-85; De Morgan,
Bibliography:
Dahchour 1894-1895 87-97;
MDA1K
Vorbilder, in:
D
Arnold, Das Labyrinth und seine
35 (1979) 2-5; Stadelmann, Pyramiden
238-240; Dieter Arnold, The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret Dahschur. Architectural Studies
Senwosretankh, tomb of A huge tomb complex, at El-Lisht, of a high official View into the burial chamber of Senwosret
III in
his
pyramid
at
Dahshur
12th Dynasty.
The superstructure has
splendid facade, the relatively small
pyramid temple. A
enlargement
later
now
III at
(New York 2001 ).
of the
a particularly
ruined, which puts this
tomb on
a
par with a royal funerary palace of the Early Dynastic
The
walls of the
tomb chamber
of the precinct to the south gives the complex a
Period.
north-south orientation. A large stone temple
preserved and inscribed with Pyramid Texts, as in the
of the king stands in the
new south
court.
It
for the cult
was accessed
by a monumental causeway which entered the precinct at the south-east
corner of the niched outer wall. To the
royal
are perfectly
tombs of the Old Kingdom.
Bibliography: A. Lansing
and W.C. Hayes, in:
BMMA 28
II
(Nov. 1933)
9-38
south and north of the pyramid are seven pyramids of
queens (No. Weret
II,
9, in
the south-west corner,
find spot of
some
is
that of
Queen
now
in the
fine jewellery
Egyptian Museum, Cairo). North of the pyramid are two
Plan of the pyramid complex of Senwosret
III
Serabit el-Khadim
An important
sanctuary dedicated to Hathor in the south-
western Sinai, on a mountain
site, at
the centre of Egyptian
Serapeum (Alexandria) Numerous
and
royal
offering stands have
217
private sculptures, stelae
been found
and
in the thick layers of
waste containing broken alabaster and faience votive offerings.
The water basins
in the
anterooms of the
sanctuaries and evidence of intensive burning of incense are suggestive of cult practices
Canaan. There are
importance
many
stelae
from neighbouring
and inscriptions of
our knowledge
for
expedition
of the
activities of the ancient Egyptians. Bibliography: W.
M.
Flinders Petrie, Researches in Sinai (London
1906) 72-108, Plates 85-113; Alan H. Gardiner and Inscriptions of Sinai
View of the temple of Hathor
at Serabit
el-Khadim
Serabit el-Chadim,
Geb
turquoise mining.
Egypt.
Due
to
It
was erected by workmen trained
the local terrain the temple
symmetrical about
its
axis,
rectangle, approximately 100
of fieldstones.
but
is
is
in
not
rather an irregular
m long, surrounded by a wall
The main entrance (from
the short western side
is
et
(London 1952),
in:
Helck,
LA V 866-868; D
temple de millions d'annees dans
maitresse de
la
turquoise, in:
T.
Eric Peet,
le
.Valbelle, Chapelle
temple of Hathor
de
sanctuaire d'Hathor,
Genava 44NS (1996) 61-70;
and Charles Bonnet, Le sanctuaire d'Hathor maitresse de (Paris 1996); D. Valbelle
The
Plate 92 (plan); R. Gundlach,
D. Valbelle
la
turquoise
and Charles Bonnet, The Middle Kingdom
at Serabit
el-Khadim,
in:
Quirke, Temple 82-89.
a later period) in
flanked by stelae of Ramesses
and Sethnakht. Instead of open forecourts the
II
visitor
Serapeum (Alexandria) Sanctuary of Serapis (Osiris-Hapy) erected by Ptolemy
on an
passes through a succession of 14 pillared halls, added in
III
the 18-20th Dynasties, built of blocks cut to the required
The rectangular temenos has a monumental approach
shape, finally reaching the actual inner court.
inner court with
its
The
larger
rock shrines dates to the Middle
Kingdom. The innermost corner contains the
cult grottoes
artificial terrace in
the south-west of the
and gateway structure with obelisks and many re-used Pharaonic monuments and statues, and only by the Serapeum but a
occupied not
is
number
of additional
of Hathor and the god Sopdu, the earliest Egyptian rock
institutions (sanctuary of Anubis, Library
temples. They were erected, side by
The main temple contains the famous
eastern corner of the court by
Amenemhat
side, in the south-
Amenemhat
IV.
Plan of the temple of Hathor at Serabit el-Khadim
III
and
city.
Serapis
of
Theodosius
Briaxis, in
AD
which
was
and so
cult
destroyed
391. Ancient sources
on).
image of
under
and excavation
Serapeum (Memphis)
218 results
permit only a partial reconstruction of the
existence of non-royal persons by the maintenance of
an extensive system of passages
statues to act as substitutes for their bodies. Statue place-
building. There
is
underground. Finds include many sculptures as well as
ment
blocks re-used from Pharaonic buildings.
local
'Pompey's
a Corinthian
Pillar',
column
m
26.85
high,
stands in the grounds of the temple but does not belong to the
being rather a reminder of the merciful treatment
latter,
of the city after
conquest by Diocletian in
its
Bibliography: Description
V, Plate 34;
2;
Anne
Roullet,
of imperial Rome,
Alexandria
at
AESE
in:
1946
late
to
3rd
in the course of the 4th. Dynasty. In 'old-
they were put into a serdab (Ar.
added
for this purpose.
'cellar'),
which was
The serdab was hidden
within the masonry of the superstructure, and connected
by window
rooms within the tomb,
slots to the
in
most
cases the entrance room, less often the cult chamber.
EPRO
Free-standing statue houses were erected in front of the
in:
la ville
Dynasty or
introduced in the
first
The Egyptian and Egyptianizing monuments 20 (1972), Figs 349ff. Sanctuaries of
Serapis outside Egypt: Jean-Claude Grenier, Decoration statuaire
'Serapeum' de
tombs (mastaba) varied according
fashioned' tombs, which had already been completed,
specially
Alan Rowe, The Discovery of the
Famous Temple and Enclosure of Serapis Suppl.
AD 297.
in private
custom. Statues were
Adriana,
in:
MEFRA
du
facade of mastaba
G 5230 (Baefba)
at
Giza, each with
four serdabs containing 30-50 statues. The statue
101 (1989).
chambers
in the statue
house of Seshemnefer
III at
Giza
Serapeum (Memphis)
have a niched facade and false doors. In the 6th Dynasty
Tomb precinct of the Apis bulls of Memphis at Saqqara. An avenue of sphinxes of Nectanebo I ran for c. 3 km from
serdabs were also used to
Memphis, through the Anubieion, and opened on
statues
to
an
important temenos which has only ever been briefly explored and
now again covered in
is
and contains,
in size
of Nectanebo
Propylaea
I
plus a
number north
the
in
way leading to
processional
sand.
300 x 320
It is c.
m
give
access
to
to
remain accessible
statue of Djoser in a serdab-like shrine Bibliography: Junker, Giza
of secondary buildings.
wall
which needed
so could not be shut away in a serdab.
temple
at the centre, the Osiris/ Apis
accommodate servant
figures.
Kings did have funerary statues, but rather cult
Helck,
LA V
III, Fig.
to the cult
and
The well-known is
exceptional.
33-34; E. Brovarski, Serdab,
in:
874-79.
a
the catacombs of the mothers
of the Apis bulls in the north-east.
The mortuary galleries in 1850-54 by
below the Serapeum were excavated
A
Mariette.
'smaller' gallery,
68
m
angles to the
it is
the later gallery, 198
tombs of the
bulls
wooden
long, with
sarcophagi was started by Ramesses
II.
Lying
at right
m long, which contains
from the reign of Psamtek
I
to the
end of the Ptolemaic period. The lower lying vaulted crypts, with granite sarcophagi weighing up to 65 tonnes, branch off this gallery. Inside the enclosure wall are
some
isolated Apis burials of the period
Amenhotep there
was
recently,
a
III to
Sety
I.
temple of Nectanebo
which
II,
Ramesses
II
are attested to
J.-P.
Lauer, Mariette a Sakkarah,
in:
J.
Vercoutter,
and
Memphis
(Paris
Melanges Mariette (Cairo
1961 ) 3-55; M. Guilmot, Le Sarapieion de Memphis, in:
Serapeum, in: Helck,L4
Thompson, Memphis under
III
by re-used blocks.
Bibliography: Auguste Mariette, Le Serapeum de
359-381;
until
lay,
under the modern rest-house, which has now
been removed. Earlier buildings of Amenhotep
1882);
from
Facing the Serapeum, to the east,
CdE 37
V 868-870;
Dorothy
f.
the Ptolemies (Princeton 1988) 212-265;
Dieter Kessler, Die heiligen Tiere
und der Konig,
in:
Mastaba of Baefba, Giza 5230, with two separate serdab buildings
(1962)
Agypten andAltes
'Serpent stone'
A
stela with a
coiling
Testament, Vol. 16 (Wiesbaden 1989) 57ff.
its
In addition to the
The mortuary
cult associated
with a false
door, the Egyptians sought to achieve the continued
top, decreasing in
way upwards. They
some temple
Serdab
round
width towards the
bottom, which usually bears a depiction of a snake
earliest
found
in pairs outside
example comes from the precinct of Djoser;
another, of Amenhotep relic,
are
entrances, especially at state sanctuaries.
III, is at
Athribis.
It is
probably a
from the earliest religious ideas, for the protection
Sety of the house and for the rejuvenation of the king at his
Some connection with
sed-festival.
from early European cultures Bibliography:
en Egypte
LD
9;
II
monuments
similar
recueillis
und
Reichheiligtumern, Schlangensteine,
ZAS
in:
Helck,
in:
monument
fragmentary
57 (1922)
Hawass, Doorjamb of King Djoser,
in:
in:
for a barque. In the
120-136; D. Wildung,
altar court, measuring 11.7 sq
m,
in the
Age of the
high and approached by
added
is
Bibliography:
Serra East fortress on the East
the Second Cataract, opposite
Bank of the
Aksha.
Its
wall,
Nile
80
It
was
still
substantially intact until
it
J.
PM VII
1
28;
G.R.Hughes, Serra
I,
Plates
Kush
Amarah
m
a terrace 2
A
I
publication of the
118-119; A.M. Blackman, Preliminary at Sesebi, in:
JEA 23 (1937) 145-151;
West, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1937-38,
JEA 24 (1938) 151-154;
11 (1963)
Knudstad, Serra East and Dorginarti, Kush 14 (1966)
1
.
I,
temple at Abydos
Temple
The 'house of millions of years' of Sety
Sesebi
m)
(56 x 157 fortified
town
West Bank of the Upper Third Cataracts.
Its
of the 18th Dynasty on the
Nile,
between the Second and
enclosure wall, measuring 200 x
m and laid out on a rectangular plan, fortified with towers. The walls are 4.65 m thick and have four 270
is
large store houses for provisions. In the north-west triple
year 6 of his reign and dedicated to
Khonsu. The front
is
the
temple of Amenhotep IV (51 x
now severely damaged, which was hall
erected prior to
Amun-Re, Mut and
has two rows of four palm
columns, three of which
still
one of the
stand. In the central
is
and
art.
for the
The main building
constructed mainly of limestone and
stands inside a brick enclosure, measuring 220 x 273
and protected with towers. The temple has seven sanctuaries,
and
their
m
parallel
approaches occupy the whole
width of the temple, so that
all
ancillary
rooms
are
displaced into a side-wing which protrudes to the south.
gateways. Inside are the remains of living quarters and
once important
I is
most important preserved pharaonic temples history of Egyptian religion
An important
in:
LA V
K. Zibelius-Chen, Sesebi, in: Helck,
888-890; Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 61-62.
Sety East, in:
166-178; Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit 40.
61 m),
on
was
flooded by the waters of the reservoir.
124-129;
(Sudan) and
m
strengthened by towers and surrounded a
harbour basin.
Bibliography:
set
H.W. Fairman, Preliminary Report on the Excavations of Sesebi
A Middle Kingdom is
an
is
which consisted of an
awaited.
LD
Report on the Excavations
long,
a
is
from the west. Sety
stairs
structure at the east.
a
excavations
Pyramids, Exhibition Catalogue (New York 1999) 170-171.
at
chamber
a
Lying along the northern wall of the fortress IV,
Egyptian Art
is
northern side-room
open sun temple of Amenhotep
JEA 80 (1994) 45-56; Zahi
room,
raised platform with four columns, the
a
Beziehungen zu den
ihre
LA V 655-656; Zahi Hawass, A
of Djoser,
on
219
I
crypt. All three cult areas open onto a shared court.
en Nubie (Paris 1889), Plate 63b; Naville, Festival-Hall,
et
Plate 4b; H. Kees, Die Schlangensteine
temple at Abydos
section, in front of the offering table built
canopy
not inconceivable.
is
Auguste Mariette, Monuments divers
I,
The temple desert.
On
rises in terraces along the slope of the
the bottom terrace
is
statue pillars is
a
ramp
court.
at its rear.
man-made
a
quay, behind which stands the
Behind
first
lake with a
pylon with
royal
this, in the first court,
leading to the second pylon and the second
Another ramp leads from there
to
main
the
temple building. The facade of the second pylon, as well as the facade of the temple proper, are in the
form
of open pillared halls. The temple originally had
seven entrances, four of which were
later
walled up.
Inside are two transverse pillared halls, connected to each
other by seven doorways, corresponding to
number
of
sanctuaries. Sanctuaries 1-4 contained the cult image
and barque of the king,
identified with Osiris,
three state gods, Ptah, Re-Horakhty
and the
and Amun-Re.
Sanctuaries 5-7 are dedicated to the Abydene Triad, Osiris, Isis
are
and Horus. The
rear walls of the sanctuaries
formed of double false doors
the deity
emerged
in order to
through which
(Fig.),
be united with the king's
image. The ceilings are false stone vaults. The rear wall of the Osiris chapel Plan of the temple of Amenhotep IV in the fortress city of Sesebi; fortress wall
shown on
left;
surviving columns shaded
is
open
to
transverse Osiris sanctuary.
form the entrance
An annexe on
to the
the south side
contains a chapel for Nefertum and Ptah-Sokar, a resting
Sety
220
I,
temple at Qurna
place for the divine barques, administrative rooms,
magazines and
stairs leading to the Osiris
tomb
1933,
behind the main temple building. The superb wall decoration
is
well preserved.
immense importance history:
Menes
it
to the reconstruction of
list' is
to Sety
I.
The work was finished
the precinct
is
II.
a
to the
(Warminster 1981
I at
);
Sethos
I
at
Abydos,
A
Guide
ASAE 58
in:
(c.
complexe
in:
in the hall of
I
(1964) 99-186;
1300 BC) (Warminster Ritual at Abydos
to Religious
Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee 41-44;
Techniques of decoration
).
Baines
et a).,
barques in the temple of
JEA 75 (1989) 13-30.
Abydos, 4 Vols (London- Chicago, Vol.
I
tomb, Osireion
Osiris
2.
(London 1902); A.H. Gardiner, A.M. Calverley and M.F. Broome,
The Temple of King Sethos
le
16 (1962) 21-27; E.B.
north of the main
Bibliography: Algernon Caulfield, The Temple of the Kings at Abydos I)
1973); A. Rosalie David,
in the early years
temple building.
(Sety
Kemi
A. Rosalie David, Religious Ritual at Abydos
Egyptian
The south-eastern corner of
sacred lake
Barguet, Note sur
P.
Abydos and the facade of this temple,
at
occupied by a group of grain stores and
was probably
1938, IV 1958);
III
Ghazouli, The palace and magazines attached to the temple of Sety
of
contains the cartouches of the kings from
of the reign of Ramesses
there
The 'Abydos king
1935,
II
architectural de Seti Ier a Abydos, in:
situated
This (Osiris tomb, Figs)
is
situated behind the west wall
mound
of the Osiris cult rooms. There was probably a
tomb and
over the
the presence of tree pits has been
demonstrated. The entrance to the underground complex lies to
the north in front of the enclosure wall, consisting
of a corridor
28
1
m long leading down to an antechamber
which has a roof of relieving
main
hall
fantastical
is
slabs.
The structure of the
and consists of an island
surrounded by a deep moat upon which rested the (now lost)
sarcophagus of Osiris-Sety. The ceiling of the room
m) was supported on two rows
(spanning 7
of five
granite pillars, weighing 55 tonnes each. The water in
moat
the
is
by an underground canal which runs
fed
from the east underneath the temple. To the east
is
another transverse room with a ceiling of relieving slabs. Forecourts and facade of the temple of Sety
I
at
Abydos
accommodates
The west
side of the enclosure wall
pylon, 58
m wide, which connects the tomb of Osiris with
a brick
the necropolis. Bibliography: Margaret A. Murray, The Osireion at Abydos (London 1904); H. Frankfort, A. de
Buck and
Abydos, 2 Vols (London 1933);
B.J.
B.
Gunn, The Cenotaph of Seti I at
Kemp,
Osireion, in: Helck,
LA TV
622-623.
Sety
I,
temple at Qurna
The 'house of millions of years' of Sety Ramesses
I
lies
at
I
and
his father
the northern end of the
Theban
necropolis (Qurna). The core of the sandstone structure is
preserved up to the roof. The enclosure wall (124 x
162
m)
east.
is
fortified
Within
is
with towers and has a vast pylon
at the
a forecourt with a cult palace, the second
pylon, a grain store in the north, a well
and a sacred
lake to the south.
The main building (45 x 52 m) columns. There interior,
which
is
is
fronted by 10
are three entrances leading to the
divided into three. The central part
contains a hall with six columns, and side-chapels, of great importance in cult-historical terms, for the cult statue
and barque of Sety
Amun. Arranged along Plan of the 'house of millions of years' (temple) of Sety
I
at
Abydos
I
as well as the local form of
the rear wall are five chapels for
the barques of Ptah-Sokar, Mut, Amun-Sety,
Khonsu and
Sharuna Nefertum-Osiris. To the west
complex dedicated
the five-room cult
is
to the deified Sety,
equipped
with' a
double false door. The northern area has a sun court
and a high
The south part
altar.
of years' for Osiris-Ramesses
own 'house of millions
his
is
the 'house of millions
who was
I,
not able to erect
of years' during his brief reign
221
Shanhur A relatively large but heavily damaged Roman temple 25 km north of Luxor, dedicated of Mut,
Isis
and other
deities.
Excavations and studies have been carried out since 1992.
The
rear part of the temple, containing a free-standing
naos surrounded by the usual support rooms, was
built
A smaller shrine for
of less than two years. Behind this lay the slaughter yard.
under Augustus and
The decoration of the temple was completed under
the divine child Horudja, to the side of the front of the
Ramesses
temple, was decorated under Tiberius. Both buildings were
II.
Bibliography: Description
II,
Plate 49; L.A. Christophe,
La
in:
I.
BIFAO 49 (1950) Qurna,
in
MDAIK
353-356; Jiirgen
V du temple de Sethi Ier a Gournah,
17-180; Rainer Stadelmann, Der Tempel Sethos'
1
MDAIK
in:
Plates 40-43; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire, salle
33 (1977) 125-131;
Osing, Der Tempel Sethos
Inschriften I
MDAIK
28 (1972) 293-299;
I.
MDAIK
31
(1975)
38 (1982) 395-405;
Gurna. Die Reliefs und
in
later linked
is still
preserved.
by a four-columned
double temple was again enlarged, a
pronaos, 29
hall,
at
resulting
an unknown date, by
m wide, with three rows of eight columns,
which bracketed the two buildings but remained unfinished. All front parts of the temple are Bibliography: C. Traunecker, Schanhur,
in:
Helck,
Quaegebeur, Le temple romain de Chanhour,
(Mainz 1977).
and the
main
in:
now flattened.
LA V 528-531;
Jan
Kurth, Tempeltagung
199-226; Jan Quaegebeur, Excavating the forgotten temple of
Shaft
tomb
Shenhour (Upper Egypt), in: Quirke, Temple 159-167; Jan Quaegebeur,
After the rock tomb.the
most frequent form of tomb;
also, often found inside a rock tomb. Superstructures in
many cases
consist of nothing
cult place. Variants
chamber
single
run from
tomb
consists of groups of
a wall
around
relatively short shafts
complexes
to large
burials (a shaft
more than
for family or
a
with a
Le temple romain de Chenhour, C.
Traunecker
et al.,
in:
Kurth, Tempeltagung 199-226;
Chenhour: Rapport des travaux de 1996
Cahier de recherches de ITnstitut de Papyrologie
et
et 1997,
Egyptologie de Lille
19(1998) 111-146.
mass
of the 13th Dynasty at El-Lisht
up
to 14 coffin
chambers, spreading
tomb of the Roman Hawawish has up to seven
out like the fingers of a hand; a shaft period, 10-20 layers of
m
deep, at
chambers). Shafts were usually no deeper than
m and only x 2 m in size. The width increased up to 2 x 4 m where stone sarcophagi had to be lowered. A 10-15
1
shaft of the
Middle Kingdom
at
El-Bersha
1.66 x
is
m in size with a depth of 35.55 m; the shaft in Giza 40 m deep. In the Late Period mastaba 2000 3.63
is
(Saqqara, Abusir, 'Campbell's tomb') the shaft could
measure up
to 10 x 10
accommodating
m, and the depth up
to
30 m,
a sarcophagus chamber, lined with
masonry, at the bottom. Steps were inserted into the walls of shaft tombs for the shaft
workmen. Following the
burial the
was blocked with rubble and boulders.
Shalfak Relatively small
Middle Kingdom rock-built
on the West Bank of the Haifa), in the
10
m
form of
thick, enclose
Nile
(c.
60
km
fortification
south of Wadi i
an' irregular rectangle. Its walls,
an area of 47 x 95
turrets close together. There
is
m
with rows of
the gateway, the commander's house,
some barracks and
Sharuna
store houses. Bibliography: G.A. Reisner, The Egyptian in:
Kush 8 (1960)
Plan of the temple of Shanhur (after C. Traunecker)
a large building in front of
16;
Dows Dunham,
forts
from Haifa
to
Semna,
Uronarti Shalfak Mirgissa,
Second Cataract Forfc, Vol.2 (Boston 1967) 115-137.
Ruins of Hut-nesut
(Kom el-Ahmar
el-Sawaris), a
north of Minya on the East Bank of the
Nile.
At this
town site in
1907 were found a large number of re-used blocks from a
1
Shena wab
222
limestone temple of Ptolemy to the local
and Ptolemy
I
form of Horus and
Some
Hathor/Isis.
II,
dedicated
his parents Osiris
and
particularly beautifully decorated
now
blocks from here are
in
Budapest, Vienna and
Krakow. Although the find spot of these blocks has been identified, the location of the
temple has not been found,
Bibliography:
Wessetzky, Reliefs aus
V.
el-Ahmar-Sharuna
Sammlung.in:
in der
dem Tempel
Ptolemaios'
I.
The casing
high.
in
is
inclined at an
angle of 61-69°, the lowest layer consisting of granite. The core
was built
in
two steps and suggests that
had
it
part
may
have been decorated with niching and, shorter sides
its
tomb, with an antechamber, sarcophagus chamber and a
al.,al-K6m
al.,
Neue Spuren des ptolemaischen
Saruna, in:
MDAIK 48
(
1992)
1
Menkaure),
six chapels to the east (see also
constructed of granite blocks inside an open trench. The
1 1
sarcophagus chamber
is
roofed with a ceiling of relieving
m high. The design of this room was the basis
slabs, 4.90
1-35.
for the
alignment of all the subsequent kings' tombs of the
Old Kingdom.
An ancillary building within the temple precinct, used for
against the east side of the core, which for the
common period.
and consecration of food
from the 25th Dynasty
From
offerings,
until the Ptolemaic
the original cult practice of consecrating
developed an independent cult of
offerings
there
offerings,
which may have replaced the practice of
making
offerings within the temple.
The shena wab was
by
a
ramp.
right angles to the axis of the
A new
feature
the statue temple built
is
first
time
contained a false door. The forecourt was decorated with niching. The brick-built causeway had a barrel roof. Bibliography: Gustave Jequier, he Mastabat Faraoun (Cairo 1928);
MRA
VI; W.K. Simpson, Mastabat el-Faraun, in: Helck,
1231-1232:
Miiller,
LA
III
Monumentalarchitektur 151-155; Stadelmann,
Pyramiden 151-155; Edwards, Pyramids 159-160; Lehner, Complete
a rectangular building of brick on
a tall platform reached
like a
may have
projected above the roof. The interior contains the king's
Shena wab the preparation
a casing
The lower
in horizontal steps, inclined at a different angle.
group of
et
GM 104 (1988) 53-56, and 1989, in: GM
am Kom al-ahmar bei
mastaba, measuring 74.40 x
like a
m
133-141; L.Gestermann
(1989) 10-12; L. Gestermann et
Tempels
shaped
Budapester und Wiener Agyptischen
MDAIK 33 (1977)
al-ahmar/Saruna, 1988, in:
is
99.60 m, and 18.7
Butic palace of the underworld,
despite intensive searching.
Kom
stone and
It
was orientated
main temple and had
Pyramids (London 1997) 139.
at
a
Shepsesptah, see Ptahshepses
central statue chapel for the temple's principal deity.
Main examples:
Khonsu
at
the precincts of
Karnak,
Medamud,
Amun, Mut and
the Hibis temple at
Sheshonq, tomb of An important Theban tomb (TT 27) 575 BC) in the lower Assasif with a
El-Kharga and El-Kab. Bibliography: C. Traunecker, Les 'temples hauts' de Basse Epoque: un
aspect du fonctionnement economique des temples,
in:
RdE
38
brick.
is
(c.
superstructure of
divided by pylons into only
for the
absence of an offering
court, the traditional third part, by a bulge in the second
(1987)147-162.
pylon.
Shepseskaf,
The enclosure wall
two sections, compensating
of the Late Period tall
tomb
of (Mastabat el-Fara'un)
The otherworldly complex of king Shepseskaf Saqqara, constructed of vast limestone blocks, as 'The Cool Places of Shepseskaf.
It
at is
South
known
has a core built of
The niching of the enclosure
wall,
which
survives, has recesses similar to false doors.
underground complex consists of a sun court, hall, a cult
room and
Bibliography: l'Universite
de
S.
di
Donadoni, Premiere campagne de Fouilles de
Rome
Sesonq
19-22, 39-64; l'Universite
de
a pillared
burial apartments.
a l'Asasif (1970),
Donadoni, Relazione preliminare
tomba
still
The
S.
in:
sulla
II
ASAE 61
(1973) 11-20;
campagna
all'Asasif (1971), in: Oriens
Antiquus 12 (1973)
Donadoni, Premiere campagne de
Roma
a l'Asasif, in:
ASAE
S.
di scavo nella
fouilles
de
61 (1973) 11-20; Eigner,
Grabbauten 55-56.
Sinki,
see also step mastaba
The remains of a
small, three-tiered step
3rd Dynasty, measuring
c.
18.5 x 18.5
mastaba of the
m, lie 8
km south of
Abydos. No tomb chamber has been found. Bibliography: Dreyer, Stufenpyramiden 47-48; G. Dreyer
and N. Swelim,
Core masonry and fallen casing blocks of the Mastabat el-Fara'un of
Die kleine Stufenpyramide von Abydos-Siid (Sinki),
in:
Shepseskaf at Saqqara
(1982) 83-95: W. Helck, Sinki,
in:
Helck,
LA V
950.
MDAIK
38
-— Sledge Siwa Oasis Siwa Oasis
is
weighing 80
Mediterranean
km
long and
in the
ruins in the Oasis, mainly
still
Amenhoten
numerous
relief at the
stone quarry of
It is
not
known what
these
transport the 1000 tonne colossi of
and Ramesses Van
II,
looked
like.
de bdtir 117-120; Clark,
AEM
88ff.;
Arnold, Building 276-280; R. Partridge, Transport in Ancient Egypt
des Jupiter
(Berlin 1820); G. Steindorff, Eine archaologische Reise durch
die lybische
Wuste zur Amonsoase Siwe (Gotha 1904); G. Steindorff,
Durch die lybische Wuste zur Amonsoase visit to
Siwa,
in:
Oasis. Its History
Oases of Egypt
V
A
(London 1996) 131-139.
zum Tempel
Bibliography: H.M. von Minutoli, Reise
A
III
to
Bibliography: Choisy,
necropoleis of rock tombs.
Amnion
used
sledges,
Ghashsham,
El-Zaytun. There are also
58 tonnes.
on a sledge drawn by oxen.
are
awaiting study: the el
c.
Ma'asara shows the transport of a large limestone block
principal
its
Ammoneion. There
temple of Bilad el-Rum, the temples of Qasr
Abu Shuruf and
south of the
Libyan Desert. Within
town, El-Aghurmi, stands the
many
km
300
lies
223
965-968;
Oracle, in:
I.
K.P.
ASAE
and
(Bielefeld 1904); J.E. Quibell,
18 (1918) 78-112;
Ahmed
Siwa Oasis (Cairo 1973);
).
Fakhry, Siwa
Ahmen
Antiquities (Cairo 1944);
Osing, Siwa,
Fakhry, The in:
Helck,
LA
Kuhlmann, The Preservation of the Temple of the
ASAE
Ammoneion (Mainz
75 (1999-2000) 63-89; K.P. Kuhlmann, Das 1988).
Sledge In comparison to rollers
and the very infrequent wheel,
sledges were the principal
means of transporting heavy
loads in Egypt. Only a few genuine
been found: at
the
a 4.2
wooden
sledges have
m long working sledge was discovered
pyramid precinct of Senwosret
ceremonial cedarwood sledge, 1.73 the pyramid of Senwosret
I,
m
reliefs
while a
came from
and a sledge with
naos was found among grave goods Tutankhamun. Wall
III,
long,
in the
a gilded
tomb of and
depict granite columns
architraves for the Unas pyramid temple lying on sledges, similarly obelisks of Hatshepsut (for
which the
A: reconstruction of the sledge depicted in the
length of the sledge must have exceeded 30 m), and the
transport of an
alabaster colossus
at
tomb of Djehutihotep
El-Bersha
Senwosret
III at
Dahshur
i
.
-
-
.
£
— — ~\
-
_
at
El-Bersha (after A. Choisy); B: sledge in the pyramid complex of
..
...
i
L
:
—
.... .
_.
...
P
—
i.
__
_______^
i
.
Transport by sledge of a colossal statue, as depicted in the tomb of Djehutihotep (No. 2) at El-Bersha
)
Sliding blocks
224
Sliding blocks
Sment el-Kharab
Slabs or blocks used to block the entrance to a tomb,
Significant remains of the
which were levered or
capital of the
wall, in
replacing the
rolled out of recesses in the
more lightweight portcullises
pyramids and large private tombs of the 12th and
(Amenemhat II, Khendjer). Occasionally were moved on wooden rails (north mastaba at
13th Dynasty
they
(unknown king
of the
Saqqara). This usage culminated
in the
El-Lisht) or on a sloping surface 13th Dynasty reign of
at
Amenemhat
Hawara, where quartzite
III at
blocks weighing up to 18 tonnes were (not
all
over the stone or by
moved
directly
means of bronze wheels on
rails, in
order to close off secret doors
etc. It is
town of Kellis, the ancient Dakhla Oasis, including a small three-room
temple, built of stone, dedicated to Tutu, Neith and Tapshai. In front of
it
are four painted brick shrines
Roman birth house with
unlikely that
Centre for Egyptology 2 (1991) 43-50; 3 (1992) 42-46; 4 (1993)
17-25; 5 (1994) 37-42; 6 (1995) 51-58; Bulletin of the Society for the
Study of Egyptian Antiquities 19
Pyramid Soleb temple
17.1.33.
500
L.
121; Strabo, Geographica 17
Borchardt, Zur Geschichte der Pyramiden VIII,
87-89; Borchardt, Entstehung der Pyramide
Karnak-Nord
III
(Cairo
1951)
16,
12;
ZAS 35
1
33.
(1897)
Louis A. Christophe,
Plate 42; H.S.K. Bakry,
discovery of a temple of Sobk in upper Egypt,
139-140; Arnold, Building 226-229,
in:
in:
1989) 6-16.
(
Sneferu, Snofru, see Bent Pyramid, Red
of stone, as related in the fantastical accounts of Strabo,
II
a
Bibliography: Accounts of excavations: Bulletin of the Australian
Monumental temple for identified with Amun, on
pyramids were closed temporarily using moveable slabs
Bibliography: Herodotus, History
and
a painted vaulted brick ceiling.
of which
could, however, be slid into place). In rare examples
blocks are encountered which could be
(Isment, Dakhla Oasis)
MDAIK 27
(
The
1971
Fig. 6.28.
the West
Amenhotep
Bank of
III
the Nile,
km south of Aswan. The temple was originally small,
and was enlarged
in
tripartite structure 130
on the bank of the first
the cult of
stages, eventually
becoming
a
m long. From a terraced temple
Nile, a processional
way
led
up
to the
pylon, standing within the enclosure wall (210 x
240 m),
fortified
with bastions. In front of as well as
behind the pylon were two pairs of obelisks.
An
avenue
of ram-headed sphinxes led from there to the second
Levering into place a sliding block in order to prevent access to the
northern mastaba
at El-Lisht
Pillars in the
temple of Amenhotep
III at
Soleb
South Tomb
main building
I
i
Ifi
3
I
&@®U ®
=
© © ©©©©©@ f|
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st
225
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Plan of the temple of Soleb showing construction phases; parts of the temple
pylon, in front of which were two obelisks
and
six
still
standing are shaded
Ethiopian king Amanislo. Publication
is
forthcoming of
colossal statues. These structures were later removed to
the results of an examination of the temple's structure
make room
carried out in the 1960s.
(Fig.), c.
14
for a
m
massive kiosk with four palm columns
high.
Behind lay two colonnaded courts
with particularly well-proportioned papyrus columns.
Bibliography:
LD
I,
Plates 116-117;
Preliminary Excavation Reports,
M.
in:
Schiff-Giorgini
and
J.
Janssen,
Rush 6 (1958) 84-86; 7 (1959)
The main temple building had three axes with numerous
154-157, 166-169; 9 (1961) 185-209; 10 (1962) 152-161; 12 (1964)
hypostyle halls and three sanctuaries. The transverse
87-95; Michaela Schiff-Giorgini, Soleb
hall at the
back
is
reminiscent of that
at
Luxor temple.
Part of the wall around the second court
remains of a depiction of a probably continued
all
the
5«/-festival,
way around
still
Soleb, in: Hleck,
I
(Florence 1965);
J.
Leclant,
LA V 1076-1080.
bears the
which originally
the wall (as in the
South Tomb Along the south wall of the precinct of Djoser
lies
the
mortuary temple of the king). Sculptures from the
monumental secondary
temple were transported to Gebel Barkal by the
form of a step mastaba, orientated east-west, with a
Schematic plan of the South
Tomb
in the Djoser precinct at
Saqqara (the four corridors decorated with
burial place of the king, in the
tiles
shown
stippled)
226
Speos
vaulted
ceiling.
front of
it,
ground
A structure like a palace, which stands in
crowned with
is
Below the
a frieze of uraei.
an extensive system of corridors arranged
is
like
massive model building, some of them faced with
a
bluish green
the whole intended to represent a
tiles,
funerary palace; these rooms are sometimes called 'blue
chambers' (architectural ceramics). Parts of the walls
now
are
MMA
kept in Berlin, the
and the Egyptian
Museum, Cairo. The granite burial chamber, added later, does not seem suitable for a real burial and may have been used
Under the
for a statue burial.
step
an unfinished tomb complex corresponding
A
South Tomb.
simplified form of South
Sekhemkhet and
for
Bibliography: Cecil
M.
mastaba
is
to that of the
Tomb
is
found
and
J.E Quibell,
The Step Pyramid (Cairo
1935) 54-64, Plates 35-49; Jean-Philippe Lauer, La pyramide a degres I
front of it in the
attributed to
with the
Its
association
it is
not certain.
like the
temple of
II.
The intention may have been
to represent the
king as
an earthly manifestation of the Horus god Hauron
(Horemakhet)
in the
form of a sphinx, and thereby as the
sun god, who appears
main forms (Khepri, Re
in three
andAtum). The current attempt to ascribe the Sphinx to an unknown, pre-Egyptian culture has no serious foundation. are also
Tanis the granite sphinxes, 4.79
known
elsewhere: at
m long, of Amenemhat
II
(now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo and the Louvre), the
Museum,
m
long (now in the Egyptian
and the MMA), the Memnoneion, and a
Cairo,
large limestone sphinx at Mitrahina.
completely cut out of the rock, for example
Speos Artemidos and Abu Simbel, hemispeos, the
front parts of
some
constructions. In originally
in front of
To the north are further cult buildings,
Amenhotep
temple of Hatshepsut, 3.5
(Cairo 1936) 94-1 12, Plates 31-37.
Speos A temple
Khafre rather than Khufu.
Harmakhis temple
Monumental sphinxes
later kings.
Firth
An open stairway and altars were erected in Roman period. The monument should be
the paws.
been
Bibliography: R.
differing
from a
which are free-standing speos
cases, the
may have
Bibliography: Hassan, Giza VIII (Cairo l953);Rkke, Harmachiste?npel; R. Anthes,
Sphinx?, Helck,
Was
LA
veranlaEte Chefren
Festschrift
in: II
992-996;
zum Bau
Rkke 47-58;
J.
des Tempels vor der
Assmann, Harmachis,
C. Coche-Zivie, Sphinx, in: Helck,
in:
Li V
stone quarry.
a
Klemm, Vom Steinbruch zum Tempel,
in:
ZAS
115
(1988)41-51.
Speos Artemidos The speos of the the
tombs
at
Antar)
(Istabl
lion
goddess Pakhet, situated south of
Beni Hasan
in a lonely desert valley, possibly
associated with the nearby quarries.
go back
to the
Middle Kingdom, but
in the reign of Hatshepsut.
and
a sanctuary.
the reign of Sety Bibliography:
Helck, ZJi
ZAS
V
LD
its
was
The temple
tomb type and has a four-pillar facade to a transverse hall,
origins probably
Its
it
1
first
decorated
follows the
supported on four
ceiling
pillars,
The sanctuary was not decorated the decoration
I;
Text
II
108-1
12;
S.
until
incomplete.
H. Goedicke, Speos Artemidos,
1138-1139; R. Klemm,
115 (1988) 45-46;
is
rock
m wide, leading
5
Vom
Bickel
Steinbruch
and
J.-L.
zum
Tempel,
in:
in:
Chappaz, Missions
epigraphiques du Fonds de l'Egyptologie de Geneve au Speos
Artemidos,
in:
BSEG
Speos Artemidos,
in:
12 (1988) 9-24;
Chappaz, Recherches au
J.L.
Kurth, Tempeltagung 23-31.
Sphinx (Giza) The
largest sculpture in
Egypt (length
c.
73.5
m, height
c.
20 m), carved out of the local limestone in the shape of a reclining lion with the
head of a king, wearing a
headcloth, uraeus and beard.
It
was
originally completed
with masonry, painted and surrounded by a courtyard. In the
New Kingdom
a small cult place
was
set
up between
The Great Sphinx area between
at
them
Giza with
its
paws clad
in limestone
and the
cult
Sphinxes, avenue of 1139-1147; M. Lehner, Reconstructing the Sphinx,
in:
Cambridge
Archaeological Journal 2 (1992) 1-26; Stadelmann, Pyramided von
Giza 172-174; Z. Hawass and M. Lehner, The passage under the Sphinx,
Hommages a
in:
Jean Leclant,
BdE
160/1 (1994) 201-216;
Hawass and M. Lehner, The Sphinx, who
Z. in:
built
it,
and why?,
(androsphinx). This
the
most frequent and only
sphinxes in the avenue between Karnak and Luxor, and the avenues of sphinxes north of the precinct of Mut and in front of the precinct of
A
b)
Month
Karnak.
at
body of
ram's head on the
a lion (criosphinx),
usually with a small figure of a king in front of
chest.
its
Amun,
This form
is
Sphinxes, avenue of
whom
ram was
Processional routes and approaches to temples (and less
avenue in front of the temple of Khonsu (Amenhotep
commonly
early structure), in front of the first
the space in front of temples) were
to
frequently flanked by recumbent figures of animals or
known
combinations of creatures, generally with walls
at
the side.
the temple of
from wall
The avenue of sphinxes
Khonsu
to wall
sphinxes was
as 'sphinxes',
at
Karnak was 20-21
and the avenue
12-13
m
in front of
itself
wide. The total
m
wide
between the
number
of
sphinxes in the Karnak-Luxor area was 1292.
Sphinxes combine an archaic form of the king with the animal sacred to the lord of the particular temple,
serving as a powerful and frightening being, which indicated and protected the approach to sacred places.
The following combinations a)
A
lion with the
headcloth and in
Avenue of sphinxes
some
are
known:
head of the king wearing the cases also the double crown
in front of the temple of
Luxor
real
form of the sphinx, examples being the two rows of 365
Archaeology 47 (1994) 30-47; Lehner, Complete Pyramids
127-133.
is
227
at
the
always linked with the cult of sacred.
Karnak (Ramesses
the Soleb temple,
II,
now
Examples
are
pylon and
usurped by Panedjem
in Berlin.
An
to
found in the
first I),
Ill's
court
or from
exceptional form
is
the unmodified figure of a recumbent ram, as in the
temple of
Khonsu avenue and
The head of a
c)
falcon
lion,
hierakosphinx). This
since
it
that
it
the precinct of Mut.
on the body of a
is
lion (falcon
probably not a true
has neither wings nor a
griffin's
claws, and
griffin,
it is
likely
represents the king in the form of the Horus falcon.
This form
is
very
rare:
Abu Simbel and Wadi el-Sebu'a.
d) Sphinxes with the head of a jackal, crocodile or
snake are extremely
rare.
Examples are known from the
mortuary temple of Amenhotep Bibliography: Ursula Schweitzer,
III at
Thebes.
Lowe und Sphinx im Alten Agypten,
Agyptolog. Forschungen 15 (1948); A.M. Badawy, The approach to the
228
stepped ramp
Stairs,
Egyptian temple,
ZAS
in:
102 (1975) 79-90; C. Traunecker,
Karnak en Egypte, Dossiers F.
Laroche-Traunecker, Donnees nouvelles sur
ler
Khonsou, in: Karnak VII 313-334; M. El-Molla temple de Khonsou,
in:
in:
histoire et archeologie 61 (1982) 34-42;
abords du temple de sacree
et al., L'allee
du
Karnak IX 239-262.
of the 1st Dynasty (Hemaka).
A
in the
mastabas
staircase 18.5
m
high,
with a 63° slope, was intended to lead from the
antechamber
the
to
chamber of
burial
Pyramid; otherwise, from Amenemhat
Bent
the
onwards the
III
entrances to pyramids are in the form of
stairs. In
stone
buildings several steps were carved from one block
placed on a slope.
New Kingdom pylons
have narrow
staircases with a straight flight. Large free-standing
of stairs exist
flights
at
at
palace of
stands at the front of the
Zawyet el-Mayitin and
Sphinx at Giza. Winding
the
New Kingdom
the
Roman example
Ballas and a
temple of Tehna,
in
occur frequently, such
stairs
Edfu
houses.
sides
the
at
monumental
or
in
and
slightly sloping steps
centre are
the
found
in
structures; in temples they were used for the
transport of barques and are flanked by balustrades; they
were also used Stairs in
in
tombs
for the
houses were often
lowering of sarcophagi.
laid
steps were erected
on wooden beams across the direction of the
Kingdom,
stairs
were
in
some
flight.
was reinforced with timber (pyramid of Senwosret
The average
lost
rise
cm
Manuel 141-146;
Clark,
Grabbauten 86-87. For the importance of in:
form figure used
Helck,
AEM
is
area.
178-180; Eigner,
stairs in religion:
W. Helck,
LA VI 757-758.
Karnak represent the
at
primeval god. The
statue pillar with an
attached Bes figure, from temple B 300
time of Taharqa,
mummi-
probably a bodyless
is
A
abstraction of divine kingship.
Gebel Barkal,
at
an unusual form.
is
Bibliography: D. Lambrechts, Les colosses osiriaques et derives,
Revue des Arch,
temples de culte royal,
in:
in:
de VArt de Louvain 11 (1978) 187-188;
et Historiens
C. Leblanc, Piliers et colosses
de type 'osiriaque' dans
BIFAO 80 (1980) 69-89;
le
contexte des
C. Leblanc,
rendu aux colosses 'Osiriaques' durant le^Nouvel Empire, (1982) 295-311; D. Arnold, Osirispfeilerjn: Helck,
Le culte
BIFAO 82
in:
Li IV 633-634.
Stela
An
monument,
upright stone
usually inscribed or
since pre-history. In Egypt, the term to
such
monuments
pillar,
see also
pillar
against a pillar or wall (pillar,
is
doors and decorated
Figs).
It
used
and
private
from false
tombs of the
1st
tombs and with a rounded
in
both
and occasionally the
2nd Dynasty, bearing the name of the deceased, in royal
to refer
They first appear
slab stelae.
top.
Nothing
in pairs
is
known
about where they were erected. Subsequently, in private
tombs
stelae gave
way
to false
doors and, from the 2nd to
the 4th Dynasty, to slab stelae, while they disappeared
at the
pyramid of Meidum, the Bent Pyramid and
secondary pyramid, as well as
in the statue temple, are
exception and probably served to
As the forms of
as cenotaphs.
during the
First
in private
mark
was
probably derived from royal seated figures set up in front
rounded
some
first to
11th Dynasty
stelae,
which were
but set into the wall. Subsequently,
were also decorated with a cavetto cornice
Bibliography: Vandier,
Khafre. Unlike the caryatids and Atlantes of Greek
Stele, in: Helck,
such figures do not carry any load: they are merely joined
a mixture of false
then, from the
at the top.
of walls, such as in the court of the pyramid temple of art,
these complexes
Intermediate Period, the traditional false
tombs gave way
at the top
stelae
its
an
grew unchecked
stelae
onwards, to inscribed and decorated
Ramesseum,
also
leaning against a wall or set into one.
Stelae must, in principle, be distinguished
door
Standing figure of a king or a god, with the back leaning
to the
(?)
in statue pillars
doors and stelae and
Statue
II
(Abydos),
I
completely in royal tombs. The pairs of stelae of Sneferu,
I).
height per step
by the considerable forward slope of the step
Treppe,
stairs
per step in Egypt, according to
was 20-32 cm; 7 of the 20
Bibliography: Jequier,
From
cases supported
on brick barrel vaults. The surface of construction
Eigner,
Nubia), Sety
in
king as a hermaphrodite
royal
on obliquely ascending
beams ( Amarna), or else the individual the Middle
(Abydos, rock temples
decorated. Stelae have been found throughout the world
Stepped ramps with low, slides
Hatshepsut, Memnoneion, Ramesseum, Ramesses
in front of
as in the temple of Deir el-Medina, the pylon at
and
are characteristic elements of the
Akhenaten's precinct of the Aten
brick were already used
Stairs built of
and hence
facades and forecourts of 'houses of millions of years':
Medinet Habu. The earliest true statue pillars occur in the causeway of Senwosret I. Those in the courtyard of
stepped ramp
Stairs,
architecture
LA VI
Totentempel des AR,
Manuel
1/2
724-774,
II/l
386-522; K. Martin,
1-6; R. Stadelmann, Scheintur oder Stelen
in:
im
MDA1K 39 (1983) 237-241.
background by being carved out of the same
blocks. Statue pillars of the king (incorrectly termed 'Osirides')
onwards
are found as
essential
from the precinct of Djoser
components
of
5ed-festival
The following
stela-like
monuments
outside the funerary context: a)
'Serpent stone'
are also found,
1
Stone construction b)
Benben
stone:
A primeval
stone fetish in the form
of a stela or pyramid, which had
own
Zawyet
el- Aryan.
229
There are seven small step mastabas
shrine at
of the late 3rd Dynasty in Middle and Upper Egypt,
Heliopolis (the benben house) and so was part of the
mound there. It
but they have no burial chamber and no precinct around them, and so are not really considered royal
Aten temples,
tombs. For technical or symbolic reasons, the stepped
with a rounded
Bibliography: Bonnet, Reallexikon der agyptischen Religionsgeschichte
inner core continued in use in some pyramids of the 4-6th Dynasties. In Upper Nubia step mastabas continued to be built over private tombs during the
(Berlin 1952) 100-101, 684-685; E. Otto, Benben, in: Helck,
New Kingdom.
its
symbolism of the sun and the primeval
was transplanted by Akhenaten where top.
appeared
it
No
to the
form of a
in the
stela
archaeological remains have survived.
LA
I
694-695.
Step mastabas c)
In the 6th Dynasty, a
mixed form of obelisk and
Steps
Mantles
Base length
6
12
240
7
14
232
5(?)
13-14
150
Elephantine
3
?
35
South Edfu
3
?
35-36
reign of Akhenaten,
El-Kula
3-4
3
35
and contained a
Nubt (Ombos)
3?
?
35
Sinki
3
3
35
Zawyet el-Mayitin
3-4
4
43
Seila
4
3
7
8
210
8
9
230
was placed
tombs
in pairs at the entrance of private
stela
and queens'
Saqqara and Aswan.
at
(cubits)
Djoser
Sekhemkhet
Bibliography: Janosi, Pyramidenanlagen 265.
Zawyet d)
Boundary up
stelae,
stela
to 7.5
m
(Amarna):
4-8 of the
marked the boundaries of Amarna government proclamation. They were
by rock-cut
flanked
a total of 14 rock-cut
high, dating from years
statues
of
the
royal
family
worshipping the sun. Bibliography:
V (London Siden
e)
III,
The
Norman de
Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of El
1908) 19-34, Plates 25-44; W.J.
Murnane and
Amarna C.C.
Van
The Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten (London-New York 1993).
stela at
Abgig.
el- Aryan
Meidum
E
Meidum E2
Step mastaba
290-310;
the kings'
tombs
J.-P.
of the 3rd
de
la
Dynasty, which consists of several mantles sloping in
W.
Kaiser,
towards the tower-like core, their height increasing in
in:
MDAIK 36
in:
MDAIK 36
steps towards the middle.
The core masonry
consists of
Hie dynastie,
la
48
x
Bibliography: Lauer, Histoire monumentale;
pyramides a degres de
The superstructure of
+
(?)
J.-P.
Lauer, Les petites
in: Rev. arch.
(1961) 5-15,
Lauer, Nouvelles remarques sur les pyramides a degres
Hie dynastie,
in:
Orientalia 35 (1966) 440-448; G. Dreyer
Zu den kleinen Stufenpyramiden Ober- und (
and
Mittelagyptens,
1980) 43-59; G. Dreyer, Nordweststadt: Stufenpyramide,
(1980) 276-280; Arnold, Building 176-179.
rough stones, and they usually had a smooth outer casing. The joints of the individual layers slope sharply
The
inwards.
first
step mastaba, in the precinct of Djoser,
Step pyramid, see also step mastaba In this book all stepped structures are called
came about by the increase, in stages, of the height of an original flat mastaba on a rectangular ground plan. This
preference step mastabas,
demonstrates clearly that the concept of a stepped royal
definition of a
tomb did not
structures
exist at the
time that the precinct of Djoser
was being planned. (The heaped mounds seen cores of mastabas of the 1st Dynasty,
sections
of
in the
and the stepped
pyramid
a
reflects
firstly
contortion
of the
geometrical
pyramid and secondly because stepped
and pyramids represent two functionally
distinct building
forms which should not be united
under the term 'pyramid'.
Saqqara tomb 3038 do not represent
forerunners of step mastabas; they have a completely different origin
and meaning.) The introduction of
Stone construction The most important building material
in
Egypt
until the
stepped structures was probably an expression of a
Graeco-Roman period was unfired mud brick. At
new and
times, stone construction
'increased claim to
monumentally' (German
Monumentalanspruch, H. Ricke) associated with kingship at that time.
The monument of Djoser was followed by
the construction of a step mastaba on a square ground
plan by
for
because the term step
Sekhemkhet and
that of
an unknown ruler
at
restricted to buildings erected for eternity.
was
to
all
was considered a luxury, its use The intention
ensure the continuance of divine kingship and
powers, which required the occasional use of stone
elements in the
1st
Dynasty: Saqqara tomb 2185 (reign
Stone quarry
230
tomb 3506
of Djer), Saqqara
Dynasty onwards
(reign of Den).
From
this led to the introduction of
the
2nd
complete
stone structures: at
Gebelein with
b) In the
1
at
In the
Abydos
slabs
and
tomb
Palermo stone) record the
(the
Khasekhemwy,
chamber was paved with limestone
walls were faced with block masonry.
d) Granite door frames
Khasekhemwy from
of
of 2nd Dynasty tombs
at
Vast
stone
structures of the
Helwan were
in
is
Esna
bordered on both sides by limestone
cliffs
(the latter extending from above
Aswan
to Nubia), while at
the
famous rose granite
could quite easily transport their construction materials
Amarna), the basalt quarries
at
Hatnub
(
1
7
km east of km
Gebel el-Qatrani (10
at
west of Lake Faiyum), as well as the hard stone quarries
funerary enclosures and tomb
2nd Dynasty kings
The culmination of be found
Nile valley
and sandstone
by boat. The alabaster quarries
cased with limestone. f)
Wood, The archaic stone
JEA 73 (1987) 59-70.
(syenite) appears. As a result, the Egyptian builders
Hierakonpolis (Cairo JdE 33895/CG 57107). e) Nuclei
in:
Stone quarry The
of Peribsen's successor,
the burial
its
Helwan,
at
3th year of the reign of Peribsen, the annals
Kingdom
construction of a stone temple. c)
Bibliography: Lucas, Materials 48-79; W.
tombs
reliefs.
of the Old
and Roman periods were exclusively
of sandstone.
temple (1st Dynasty?)
a) Archaic
limestone
(Bubastis, Sebennytos, Iseum, Tanis). Temples in the Ptolemaic
at
atWadi
Hammamat (nearly
100
gneiss quarries at Toshka (80
Saqqara.
km east of Qena) and the
km/rom
the Nile), on the
to
contrary, could be reached only by expeditions using
the 3rd Dynasty precinct of Djoser.
quarry roads (ramp), which required certain infra-
early stone construction
is
accommodation and
All
subsequent royal funerary structures were executed
structure to provide wells,
in
stone, the temples of the gods only exceptionally.
Important limestone quarries, especially during the
4th Dynasty examples are known: granite blocks of
Khufu from Tida
in the Delta, of
Khufu and Khafre
from Bubastis, the temple of Harmakhis
and the granite
Khafre, El-Tod.
From
the
built
by
of Userkaf from
pillars
end of the 3rd Dynasty onwards,
limestone became increasingly frequent in private
mastabas,
the facing of cult chapels and
initially as
subsequently also in the mastaba core (Nefermaat,
unnamed mastaba at is
Saqqara).
the
From
regular
and associated
pyramid
Teti
the 3rd to the 12th Dynasty, granite
material
in
burial
royal
chambers
corridors, as well as for the casing of
pyramids and temple From
of the
front
in
the Middle
Pyramid Age, were
at
supplies.
Tura and Ma'sara, to the south-east
of Cairo and in Middle Egypt, while the large sandstone quarries of the
New Kingdom
were located
Gebel
at
north of Aswan. All over the country, stone
el-Silsila,
quarries were of local significance.
most of the building material
It
assumed
is
quarried immediately beside the building
Limestone and sandstone were
in
that
pyramids was
for the
site.
many
mined
cases
in gallery quarries, with the ceilings of their vast interiors
supported on
temples
by
pillars left
may
pillared halls
earlier
work.
Many such
have been converted into rock
at a later date.
Quarries are also sources for the
study of half-finished monuments, such as the obelisk
walls.
Kingdom onwards,
the temples of
the gods began to be predominantly stone buildings, or
Aswan, and
offer insights into the settlements of
at
quarry
workers. Throughout Egyptian history, stones from
of
were faced with stone. In the reign of Mentuhotep
earlier buildings served as building material (re-use
Nebhepetre, the more robust material sandstone was
blocks). Pharaonic stone quarries not only provide
many
introduced which gave more scope to the architect.
important technical information, but also contain
Improved masonry techniques from the reign of
historical inscriptions, such as reports of expeditions or
Amenemhat
III
onwards enabled the use of quartzite
special architectural projects.
From Thutmosis
in III
onwards, sandstone gradually displaced limestone except at
Abydos and
at
other building sites in Middle
Egypt where limestone quarries were close
was employed
in the
for obelisks, colossal
in the Late
Granite
New Kingdom predominantly statues, thresholds, with the
exception of the Osireion of Sety
was mainly
by.
built of granite.
An
I
at
Abydos which
archaising tendency
Period onwards led to the reintroduction of
hard stone (granite, basalt)
in
temple construction
the opening
up of new
galleries
and walls
for particular
building projects. Ancient quarries are under threat from
modern mining. Bibliography: Clark,
AEM
Some remarks on
12-33; H. Goedicke,
stone quarrying in the Egyptian Middle Kingdom,
43-50; R. Klemm, Steinbruch, survey
Hatnub,
at
189-212;
Amarna the
1.
in: B.
in:
Helck,
in:
JARCE 3
LA V 1276-1283;
I.
(1964)
Shaw,
A
Kemp, Ed., Amarna Reports III (London 1986)
Shaw, The 1986 Survey of Hatnub,
Reports IV (London 1987) 160-167; LA.
American Research Center
in
in:
B.
Kemp,
Ed.,
Hand Newsletter of
Egypt 146 (1989) 3-5; Arnold,
Building 27-41; Golvin, Karnak 96-98; Rosemarie and Dietrich
Stone quarrying techniques
231
Quarries. Left: unfinished obelisk in the granite quarry at Aswan; right: limestone quarries at Zawyet el-Mayitin (Zawyet Sultan) with blocks which
have been almost completely
Klemm, Die
Steine der
hewn
out but not removed (photographs Martin Isler)
Pharaonen (Munich 1981
Shaw, Pharaonic quarrying and mining,
in:
);
Klemm,
Steine;
I.
Antiquity 68 (1994)
108-119. Ancient quarries: Angelina Dworakowska, Quarries
in
pillars.
Underground mining required
Passing along
this,
masons had access
Ancient Greece (Wroclaw 1975); Angelina Dworakowska, Quarries in
the stone in order to separate
Roman
order to
Provinces (Wroclaw 1983); Angelina Dworakowska, Die
Steinbriiche von Seiinunt
zum
(Mainz 1990); Manolis Korres, Vom Penteli
Parthenon (Munich 1992) 6-31; Ancient Stones: Quarrying,
Trade and Provenance, Acta Archaeologica Lovaniensia 4 (Louvain 1993); Angelina
Dworakowska, Steinbruch und Tempel,
in:
Antike
Welt 25 (1994) 122-139.
facilitate access to
The procedure by which both hard and
is
soft stone
from the surrounding rock by trenching,
was
split off
the surface below
after
and pulled
forwards out of their rock-bed.
Both limestone and sandstone were
this
initially
mined it
pursue the better rock below ground. In
way were formed
wall. In
and removal of the blocks, its
final state, the wall
almost vertical with slightly projecting
steps. In the Early
Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom,
hard stone was predominantly obtained by collecting
only
New Kingdom.
way hard
stone could be quarried in pharaonic
the stone quarry frontages, several
Work
times was using stone tools (dolerite balls).
in the
granite quarries was used as a punishment for convicts.
The method of quarrying
Wedges seem not
open-cast until the material there was exhausted and to
to the other side of
from the rear
For tools used on softer rock, see stone working. The
quarried was the same, in that the blocks were completely
was necessary
it
they were quarried out in steps. In of a quarry
did not start until the
which they were
low
blocks lying loose on the surface. True open-cast mining
Stone quarrying techniques
isolated
at the outset a
corridor to be chiselled out below the quarry ceiling.
iron in the
Roman
for
quartzite
is still
unclear.
to have
been used
until the arrival of
period.
The theory
that the Egyptians
wetted the wooden wedges, causing them to swell, purely hypothetical, and the effectiveness Bibliography: Clark,
AEM
is
is
disputed.
12-22; Engelbach, Obelisk;
J.
Roeder, Zur
kilometres long, in the quarrying areas of Tura, Middle
Steinbruchsgeschichte des Rosengranits von Aswan,
Egypt and Gebel
Anzeiger 3 (1965) 467- 552; Arnold, Building 31-41; Goyon, Karnak
to
el-Silsila,
huge underground
with large entrances leading
halls, their ceilings
borne on huge
96-98; Klemm, Steine 320-324.
in:
Archaologischer
Stone working
232
\
—V
_ \
\
\
^ -i
iK
a,
-
Quarrying techniques: A: cutting out blocks soaked with water; balls; E:
C: cutting the first
in steps
with quarry trenches
in the
open; B: separating a limestone block using a long
wooden wedge
block below the ceiling in a covered quarry; D: cutting a granite block by abrading the stone with dolorite
separating a granite block using levers
Stone working
and bronze
chisels
which survive from pharaonic times
Despite the relatively ready availability of stone for
would have been unsuitable because of the severe wear
Egyptians
were extremely
they would have suffered, even after tempering. Tools
preferring
to
building
purposes, the
economical
in
its
use,
fit
together
complicated angled joints and to add material by patching, using time-consuming labour, rather than
smoothing block.
off protrusions to
Each block was cut
required by
its
produce a rectangular
to
much used on both
soft
and hard stone were the saw and
grinding stone. Blocks were usually delivered from the quarry in
rough condition. Of the
six faces of a rectangular block,
the individual shape
position; isodomic ashlar masonry,
consisting of regular-sized, pre-shaped stone blocks, did
not appear until the Graeco-Roman period (masonry),
with a few exceptions (talatat). The processing of
limestone and sandstone was very similar
to
'soft'
wood
carving methods, being carried out using copper or
bronze
chisels.
Hard stone (granite, quartzite,
diorite,
basalt) was worked using the methods of stone vessel
production (drilling, sawing, rubbing, percussion). Our
understanding of the processing of some forms of hard limestone and sandstone remains uncertain; traces on
unfinished
blocks
and
employment of picks and
rock
walls
indicate
flat-bladed chisels.
the
The copper
Checking and smoothing off a limestone block, as depicted of Rekhmire
in the
tomb
Stylobate come
only the sides which would
masonry
already existing
narrow ends), would
into contact with
(the underside
and one of the
be dressed. The second
initially
narrow face was dressed only when the next block was being
fitted;
was frequently sawn (saw,
the front edge
anathyrosis). The top surface was also
was put
until the following layer
that surface
would be stepped
of a particular left
size.
The
left
undressed
in place. Frequently,
233
organic forms (columns). Students of structuralism
understand the composition of a building, or the combination of
elements, by reference to
its
compared
structure (as
its
architectonic
to function).
Bibliography: H. Ricke, Bemerkungen
I
5-11; W. Schenkel, Archi-
tektonische Struktur versus Funktion: Zur Analyse altagyptischer Architektur, in:
GM 39 (1980) 89-103.
to enable fitting of blocks
rear side of blocks
was usually
completely undressed, while the front was not
dressed until the building was complete (bosses). Straightness of a wall was maintained by measuring the
upper edge of the front of each block and working
it
to
Style, see also structure According to Ricke, style formed part of the structural
development of Egyptian architecture;
it was the variable component which stretched beyond the unchangeable
Due
nature of the structure.
to the extent of
the required level. The flatness of the surface was
which Egyptian monuments have
checked with the help of the frequently attested
difficult to
to
'boning rods' (a rope extended between two wooden
understand, attracting
damage
suffered, their style
is
and
is
little
attention,
moreover not accepted as a means of expression
for
posts of equal length, checks being carried out with the
individual architects. During the planning stage of a
help of a third post).
project, the architect
was needed with corner blocks from
Particular care
which other blocks were the unfinished in
first
to
be measured. The corners of
pylon of Karnak display the manner
which the sloping and tapering corner torus
moulding was
fitted there. In
capitals were handled, in the
column manufacture, same way
as statues,
by
due
stylistic
freedom
and the necessity of including elements from
tradition earlier
had only limited
purely functional constraints: a dominating
to
examples. Despite
some scope
architect did have
this, the
in the selection,
arrangement, dimensioning
and ordering of these elements (compare, the huge variety in form of
for
example,
Theban rock tombs of the
projection of their proportions on the six sides of the
New Kingdom and
block to be worked
could be achieved by the arrangement of elements such
columns,
capitals
and
statues, as well as
models of capitals, have
made
Blocks
Preliminary drawings of
on.
sculptors'
of hard stone, architraves, obelisks,
and so on, were produced
as
columns;
diameter
survived.
in their final state at the stone
the Late Period). Highly varied effects
for instance,
columns of the same type and
may differ in height, have variable spacing or be
differently painted (for example, the difference
the hypostyle halls at
Karnak and
at
the
between
Ramesseum).
quarry, where specialists in hard stone techniques were
Steckeweh has drawn attention to an 'Upper Egyptian
immediately to hand. Processing of hard stone was
building
avoided
at
on there
the building
site,
softer stones being
for preference. This
worked
method of working
on precise planning and specification
at
relies
the time
in
the
Kingdom and
Middle
the
effect
and linked
to
its
landscape, with huge courts, and
up by pillared halls and surrounding
walls broken
passageways.
of ordering. Bibliography: Clark,
Steinbearbeitung,
in:
AEM Helck,
12-33; Lucas,
AEMI
LA V 1274-1276;
Le pietre di Madinet Madi, to I.E.S.
in:
65-74;
Jaritz,
L.
Stork,
Terrassen 33-36;
Noticeable stylistic differences can also be observed in the
development of
later
Egyptian temple buildings
Donadoni,
distinguishing such periods as the Ramesside Era, the
Pyramid Studies and Other Essays
25th Dynasty, the 29-30th Dynasties, the Ptolemaic
Arnold, Building 41-48; Golvin, Karnak 96-98,
Presented
style'
Thutmoside period: an architecture with an external
108ff.; S.
Edwards (London 1988) 61-67; Klemm, Steine
period and the Bibliography:
94-97, 320-324; Nicholson, Materials 63-69.
Roman
Ricke,
age.
Bemerkungen
I,
11-14;
H.
Steckeweh,
Oberagyptische Architektur zu Beginn des Mittleren and des Neuen
Structure, see a/so style Generally, this
is
the
static
Reiches,
part
of the
structural
in: 17.
International Kongrefi fur Archaologie 1939 (Berlin
1940) 261-263; Arnold, Temples 26-27,44,95-96, 144-150,226.
development of Egyptian architecture, which, independent of the changeable nature of style at inner structure.
Its
main
all
characteristic
periods, shaped is its
canonical principles, such as frontality, parallelism, orientation crystalline
and
strictly
its
dominance of
symmetry,
Stylobate, see also plinth The essential base on which columns built structures in
stand.
Many stone-
Egypt were constructed on a raised
and the contrasting interplay of
base as a protection against the water of the inundation,
geometrical forms with plant/
for aesthetic reasons or, in the case of a cult building, to
Sun court
234
symbolise a primeval
mound,
mark
as well as to
a
particular spot as the place of the 'first time (an Egyptian
term
Barque
for creation).
stations, kiosks
and similar
have very distinct stylobates crowned with a cavetto cornice. Likewise the rear section of the temple
(re-use of blocks,
Fig.),
and those of Ramesses
Habu
III
all
Month and Opet temples at Karnak and at Medinet
are raised. Similarly, the shrines for the cult
pyramid temples and Sagha and Medinet Madi, upper
at the
tall
image
temples of Qasr
as well as the
el-
row of shrines
pyramid
their
to
precincts at Abusir. Only those of Userkaf
and Niuserre have been found and excavated. These, presumably
an open
like all the others, consisted of
court with a central obelisk or
monument
cult
to the sun.
mud
appears that they were originally built of
It
brick,
gradually being recast in stone and, during that process,
modified or enlarged. These sanctuaries were dedicated not only to the sun god but also to the 'Son of
Re',
i.e.
the
Hatshepsut temple,
king, united with his father after his death, thereby
stylobate. In the Ptolemaic period, all
bringing about a close connection with the pyramid
terrace's rear wall in the
stand on a
walls,
Luxor
the
at
in the
at
b) Userkaf and five subsequent kings of the 5th
Dynasty erected sun temples which were perhaps close
screen walls, door frames, even column bases, are
Bibliography: Jequier,
precinct nearby.
No sun temples
are attested to after
Menkauhor.
separated from the floor by a pedestal.
The names of the sun temples of the following 5th
Manuel 39-45.
Dynasty kings are known:
Sun court An important tombs,
Userkaf: Nekhen-Re structural feature of Late Period
this is a court situated
deep
Theban
in the rock within the
Neferefre:
pillared halls either along one side or completely
usurped by Niuserre)
surrounding
it.
Provided with an offering table and plant
New
Kingdom tombs (Kheruef, Amenemopet) and formed symbolic junction between the spheres of darkness (Osiris). into the inner
A door
light (Re)
a
and
recess in the rear wall leads
excavated)
Hetep-Re
unknown, possibly
(position
Niuserre: Shesep-ib-Re (Abu Gurob, excavated)
Menkauhor: Akhet-Re (position unknown). c)
From
the early 18th Dynasty, sun temples
became
closely connected with the cult of the king, the 'shades of
sun (shut-Re),
Re' or 'mirrors of the
in the
form of
unpretentious structures, usually subordinate
tomb.
Bibliography: Jan
Abu Guroh,
Neferirkare: Set-ib-Re (position unknown)
second courtyard of a tomb complex, usually having
basin, this feature developed out of the tradition of
(at
Sahure: Sekhet-Re (position unknown)
Assmann, Das Grab des Basa (Nr.389)
in der
economically tied Nefertiti,
thebanischen Nekropole (Mainz 1973) 45-46; Eigner, Grabbauten
Tiye,
118-120.
attested to at
to,
or
to,
a major temple. 'Sun shades' for
Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten
Amarna, and were perhaps
are
places for the
transference and regeneration of divine creative power
and
fertility.
They may have had a function similar
to:
d) sun cult places inside 'houses of millions of years',
on the roof of the
Temple of
Abu
Akhmenu and next to the Great
Simbel,
with a
this last decorated
decorative programme and emblems based on solar symbolism (pylon, obelisks, high altar and baboons
adoring the sun). These places were probably the prototypes of the wabet in later temples. d) Akhenaten's temples to the
Amarna
Aten
Karnak and
at
consisted of pylons as gates of the sun,
courtyards containing numerous individual, small altars Reconstructed longitudinal section of the sun court of the tomb of
Montuemhat
at
Thebes (see under Montuemhat
for plan)
Sun temple who
represent aspects of the
Atum, Khepri, Harmakhis, Re,
Re-Horakhty and others, are attested
to
from the 2nd and
3rd Dynasties and widespread in Egypt: a)
The Harmakhis temple
of Khafre at Giza.
altar.
The form of the sun temple at Heliopolis is not known. The building of Taharqa at Karnak also has solar aspects
Cult complexes for deities
sun, including the Aten,
overlooked by a monumental and accessible high
and
is
of an exceptional form.
Bibliography: Peet, City of Akhenaten
Sonnenheiligtumern der E. Winter,
5.
Dynastie,
in:
III;
W.
MDAIK
Kaiser,
Zu den
14 (1956) 104-1
Zur Deutung der Sonnenheiligtiimer der
5.
16:
Dynastie, in
Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes 54 (1957) 222-233 R. Stadelmann, swt-Rc als Kultstatte des Sonnengottes
im Neuen
Symbolism Reich, in:
MDAIK
25 (1969) 159-178;
temple d'Aton a el-Amarna, 148-151;
E. Uphill,
151-166;
1
103-1 104;
The Per-Aten
Amarna,
at
in:
Stadelmann, Sonnenheiligtum,
R.
1094-1099;
Barguet, Note sur
P.
Stadelmann, Sonnenschatten,
R. J.
grand
le
Revue d'Egyptologie 28 (1976)
in:
JNES 29 (1970)
in:
Helck,
LA V
Helck,
LA V
in:
Assmann, Das Dekorationsprogramm der koniglichen
Sonnenheiligtumer des Neuen Reiches nach der Fassung der Spatzeit,
ZAS
in:
110
91-98;
(1983)
Wildung, Sonnenkbnig,
Dietrich
Sonnengott (Munich 1985); M. Verner, Remarques sur solaire in
Htp-R,
in:
BIFAO 87 ( 1987) 293-297;
Saqqara und Abusir,
Barta, Abusir
in:
R.
temple
le
Stadelmann, Userkaf
2000 529-542.
235
positioning 'above' or 'below' (building of Taharqa at
Karnak), wall decoration with human figures and parts of the world'
tomb
and 'Two Lands'
as the underworld,
e) Victory
books of the
afterlife.
and rule ofMa'at over (and protection from)
sphinxes and
chaos:
'four
motifs, the king's
lions
sculpture and in wall
in
decoration, symbolism of palaces (niching), royal statues, statues of enemies, depictions of the
hunt and
warfare (destruction rituals), scenes of tribute in wall decoration. Unification of the land: bundles of
f)
lilies
and
papyrus, the double crown in depictions of the king,
Syenite, see also granite
The incorrect name given
Aswan (=
coronation of the king shown in wall decoration. the dark granite from
to
Syene). True syenite
not used in Egyptian
is
architecture.
g)
The 'Two Lands':
state sanctuaries in architecture
and wall decoration, heraldic
plants (heraldic pillar),
red and white crown in depictions of the king, state gods
Bibliography: R.
Klemm, Syenit,
in:
Helck,
LA VI 112-113.
and crown
nomes and deities. symbolism
deities, processions of the
h) Endurance of kingship: sed-kshva\
Symbolism
(rows of chapels, sed-festival throne, Per-wer and Per-nu
Egyptian architecture uses a 'language' of typical
chapels with corresponding roof shapes, royal statues,
symbols
pro
{'pars
invoke
historical,
sed-festival
mythological and religious facts and events from the
of the king
primeval origins of the Egyptian cosmos, thereby
wall decoration with
preserving, in an effective state, the resulting 'petrified'
journey of the sun.
world order. In extreme cases abstractly than
realistically,
it
more
replicates, in stone,
true or imagined earlier
imbued with power. The symbolic
structures that were
of Egyptian
content
to
toto')
theme
in wall decoration), lion bed, reception
among the gods, 'offering of millions
of years',
theme of king participating
in the
Palace: facade with niching, palace-facade false
i)
door.
These symbols, once created, retained
their signi-
not
ficance in Egyptian architecture for an extensive period,
confined to quotations in the form of wall paintings or
only rarely become ornamental elements with no
architecture
other decorative elements; rather, itself
the form of structures.
represented by a large architectural forms
number
it
is
therefore
actually determines
Some
concepts can be
of symbols, which unite
and wall decoration. The following
are a selection: a)
Numerical symbolism has some
numbers
(especially the
its
journey: pairs of pylons, pairs of
benben stone, barque of the sun, open
on columns, pyramidion and
its
capitals
decoration, use of
quartzite, orientation on an east-west axis, conducting
S.
Giedion, The Beginnings of Architecture
(Zurich/Munich
2nd
caracteristiques
1976,
1984);
Ed.,
du temple pharaonique,
roof, wall decoration
with 'seasons' theme, books of the
symbolism of the mammisi-chapels
and
the
tomb
underworld: the king's
c)
wall decoration with 'resurrection' theme.
Creation:
in Egypt, in:
related elevations in ancient Egypt, in:
Brunner,
Die
Sonnenbahn
in
27-34;
floors
and black wall bases,
light-
world
and
the
underworld
indicated
by
spatial
hill'
and other
(1969) 110-120;
agyptischen
temples and their mythological origin,
coloured walls, orientation of a building's axis, this
CdE 38 (1963)
Amarna, in: ZAS
Tempeln,
in:
Archaologie und Altes Testament (Festschrift Kurt Galling) (1970)
symbolism.
columns, black
at
MDAIK 25
stone, terraced temple, primeval ocean and island
d) Cosmos: starry sky, vaulted ceiling, forest of plant
The architectural
3 Vols (Paris 1957); A. Badawy,
87 (1962) 79-95; A. Saleh, The so-called 'primeval
H.
pyramid, primeval mound, benben
Quelques
Le Musee vivant 18
78-90; A. Badawy, The symbolism of the temples
Osiris
afterlife,
A. Varille,
in:
(1954) 20-24; Schwaller de Lubicz, Le temple dans I'homme. L'Apet
du Sud a Louxor,
b)
similarly
Reinle, Zeichensprache der Architektur
open courtyards, position on the
(representing the underworld), false door, books of the
and
colours.
(London 1964); Adolf
light into buildings,
afterlife.
role in architecture
2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10),
symbolism associated with materials and Bibliography (select):
The sun and
obelisks,
meaning.
A.J.
Spencer, The brick foundations of Late Period peripteral in:
Studies Fairman
(Warminster 1979) 132-137; Giinter Bandmann, Mittelalterliche Architektur als Bedeutungstrager (Berlin
1979); W. Westendorf,
Maat, die Fuhrerin des Sonnenlichtes in der Architektur, (1971)
143-146;
E. Graefe, Der
in:
ZAS
97
Sonnenaufgang zwischen den
Symmetry
236
Pylontiirmen,
in:
Orientalia Lovatiiensia Periodica
(1983)
14
55-79; R.B. Finnestad, Image of the World and Symbol of the Creator (Wiesbaden Helck,
LA V
I
1 1
46- 1
LA VI 122-132;
E.
1985); 1
52; E.
P.
Kaplony, Wappenpflanze(n),
Hornung, Symbol, Symbolik,
Hornung, Der Tempel
als
Kosmos,
in: in:
in:
Helck, Geist
der Pharaonenzeit (Basle 1992) 108-122; D.M. Mostafa, Reflexions sur
la
fonction cosmographique du temple egyptien,
in:
Varia
Symmetry The Egyptian image of the world was shaped by dualistic ideas,
and
their constant striving after order
demanded
that their architecture
and balance
was planned and
structured on an axially symmetrical basis. In sacred buildings
symmetry
is
consciously broken up for cultic
reasons or in order to avoid total symmetry.
Aegyptiaca 5 (1989) 103-118; Richard H. Wilkinson, Symbol
Bibliography: Henry G. Fischer, The Orientation of Hieroglyphs
and
(New York 1977) 13-15, 41-45;
Magic
in
Egyptian
'Temple Symbolism', (1976) 10-15.
in:
Art
(London,
1994);
J.
Baines,
Royal Anthropological Institute News 15:3
und Denken der Agypter, 1985)71-77.
in:
E.
Hornung, Zur Symmetrie
in
Kunst
Agypten Dauer und Wandel (SDAIK
18,
T Tabo (Tebo, Argoa)
walls,
The remains of a temple (possibly dedicated
to
Amun)
of
the 25th Dynasty, perhaps dating from the reign of
Kerma near
Taharqa. South of
the Third Cataract,
constructed of re-used material of Middle
New Kingdom
date. In front of the first
colossal statues
made
Natakamani (12
BC-AD
Museum). Behind sides
now
12),
the
Khartoum
surrounded on four
The temple
Kawa and Sanam. It was
earlier building
Bibliography: in:
LD
is
hall
with
similar to those
probably erected on top of an
which was destroyed during the Amarna
period and restored under Ramesses
Tabo,
in
I
120, Text
V
a high base for the divine barque.
m
high,
and 16.25
m
The structure wide
in width, too
to
support a roof. Bibliography:
J.
Lauffray, La colonnade-propylee occidentale de
Karnak, dite 'Kiosque de Taharqa,
in:
Karnak
III
1 1
1-164.
pylon are two
by a colonnade, the second pylon and a
four rows of five columns. of
is
of granite of the Meroitic king
a courtyard,
is
it
Kingdom and
is
was 19.73
Taharqa, pyramid of This king's pyramid stands in the necropolis of Nuri, on the Upper Nile above Kareima.
247-248; Ch. Maystre, Excavations
Kush 15 (1967/68) 193-199; H. Jacquet-Gordon,
in:
an example of the
new
ment of traditional Egyptian
was
a smaller
is
structures.
It
developoriginally
pyramid made of sandstone which was
enlarged to 51.75 x 51.75 height
II.
It is
Ethiopian-period pyramid, which was a
m
(angle of slope 69°);
60 m. The usual cult chapel
is
absent.
its
The burial
at
JEA 55
(1969) 103-111; Hein, Ramessidische Bautatigkeit 63.
Taffa (Tafa)
Two small temples Bank of
of the time of Augustus on the West
the Nile, 45
km
south of Aswan, to the north of
Kalabsha. The smaller, rectangular north temple
is
unfinished and has an open front with two columns in (anta).
antis
The temple was transferred in
van Oudheden
The remains of the
at
Leiden.
to
the
1978 in the Rijksmuseum
Netherlands and re-erected
larger
temple to the south were destroyed in the 19th century. 20
Some remains were
re-discovered during the
UNESCO
campaign. This temple had a rectangular sanctuary
surrounded by a pronaos with front.
six
columns and an open
The complex was surround by an enclosure wall
with a small pylon. Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 10-1
1;
Hans
D. Schneider, Taffeh.
Rond de wederopbouw van een Nubische tempel (Gravenhage M.J. Raven, uit het
The Temple of Taffeh,
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden
te
1979);
Oudheidkundige Mededelingen
in:
Leiden 76 (1996) 41-52.
Taharqa, colonnade of The monumental barque station of Taharqa in the first (Bubastite) courtyard at Karnak (Khonsu temple). Between two rows of
five
(one
columns (column production,
still
standing) papyrus
Fig.), linked by screen
_
.
Plan and section of the inner chambers of the pyramid of Taharqa Nuri; above right, corner construction of a Meroitic pyramid
at
238
Talatat
m
chambers, which are not decorated, take the form of an
21-30
Osiris tomb.
which originated Dows Dunham, The Royal
Bibliography:
Nun
Cemeteries of Kush,
Vol.
2
high, of granite
and weighing
Inside the forecourt, behind the gateway,
monolithic palm columns, more than
(Boston 1955)6-9.
c.
1000 tonnes,
Per-Ramesses, were found here.
in
is
a hall
m
1 1
tall
with four (possibly
usurped from a temple of the Middle Kingdom). They
Talatat
were surrounded by smaller papyrus columns. From here,
Small stone blocks, measuring (corresponding to 0.5 x 0.5 x
27 x 27 x 54
c.
cm
cubit) which were used in
1
the constructions of Akhenaten in the precinct of the
Aten
at
Karnak (sandstone) and
in
Amarna (limestone).
a processional
way
led to the
formed the entrance Behind the
first
to the
obelisk of Ramesses
allowed building projects to progress speedily. Blocks
front of the second pylon.
in exceptionally thin walls
and
laid in alternate
pylon, no longer in
which
III,
temple building proper.
pylon was an enclosed courtyard with an
Their brick-like uniformity, coupled with their lightness,
were used
first
limestone by Osorkon
existence, built of
II,
17
m high, standing at the rear in
Behind the latter was the second
courtyard, in which were found two colossal sphinxes of
rows of headers and stretchers; the arrangement
is
Amenemhat
known from
in
and numerous monuments of the Middle and New
the impressions
in the
left
mortar
foundation ditches. After Akhenaten's temples were
abandoned,
in the reign of
have been found
Agyptologische
Laurfrey, Les 'telatat'
67-
89; J.-L.
rwd-mnw
et le
2
(Hildesheim
Teny-menou,
in:
1991);
Karnak VI
nouvelle assemblage de telatat; une paroi du
Karnak
in:
these in the
facade of the
III,
Siamun.
On
the two long sides
and
at
I
and
it
was
enclosed by a system of limestone and brick walls. From the evidence of blocks scattered in the area
was made of
it is
monolithic granite (possibly of Middle
type
may
columns with
apparent
granite.
front section consisted of a pillared hall
The remains of biblical Zoan (Numbers
closed papyrus capitals of this
have stood directly in front of the sanctuary.
and other temple
13, 22) lie at the
north-eastern edge of the Delta, covering an area of
1200 x 1600 m, in the form of a
mound
of rubble {kom)
m high. This was the capital city of the 21st Dynasty,
replacing Per-Ramesses, 22
km to the south-west, which
had probably been abandoned due Nile silting up.
The
to the
city contained
branch of the
enormous temple
structures built using material brought from the old capital,
which had
itself
been constructed from re-used
New Kingdoms by
blocks of the Old, Middle and
the early enclosure wall
Ramesside kings. Only the temple precincts of Amun and
Anta have been excavated
to
date,
Horus temple
which occupy
approximately one tenth of the kom.
The main temple was dedicated
A
way
processional
430
m
m
and 15
Nectanebo
II
of Psusennes
to I.
thick), built
Ptolemy
Amun
of Thebes.
II,
buildings
f,-_m.™ '-
by successive kings from
replacing a smaller enclosure
Entrance was through a monumental
gateway of Sheshonq earlier
to
led to the enclosure wall (370 x
III built
100
of granite blocks from
(which have
now been
partially
reconstructed). Parts of a colossal statue of Ramesses
II,
The
formed of
Kingdom origin). Two columns
Relief blocks belonging to the sanctuary
VIII 81-119.
the rear
Tanis
35
was
This formed the
II.
main temple building of Psusennes
that the core of this building
Beitrage
du IXe pylone
Chappaz, Un
d'Aton,
at
reassembled
Hanke, Amarna-Reliefs aus Hermopolis
Hildesheimer J.
Karnak,
Antinopolis. Several
A scene, 12 m long, has been Luxor Museum by Philippe Marie. Rainer
by Osorkon
four sandstone statues of Ramesses
sites.
Bibliography:
built
Horemheb and Ramesses
Medamud, Hermopolis and talatat
Kingdoms. The third pylon,
III
apparently constructed of granite^ with four obelisks and
their construction materials being re-used at
thousand decorated
Amenemhat
the 'Hyksos sphinxes' of
Tutankhamun, they were
completely dismantled under II,
II,
Plan of the temple precinct of Tanis
200
300
Tell
Brissaud and
P.
LA VI
1
(CRNS
194-209;
P.
M. Romer,
Paris 1982) 195-201;
Brissaud
et al.,
Cahiers de Tanis
(Paris 1987); Henri Stierlin, Tanis, Vergessene Schatze der
(Hirmer Verlag 1987); Henri tre'sor
Magna
Alexandria on the
Amun
temple
at
Tanis
a
town 45 km
the west of
to
A
m
coast, with a lighthouse, 17
a well-preserved Osiris sanctuary dating
Ptolemaic period. east over the ruins of the
Ziegler, Tanis,
(Abusir)
Important ruins of
View from the
and Christiane
Stierlin
I
Pharaonen
des Pharaons (Fribourg 1987).
Taposiris
and
239
Yoyotte, Fouilles a Tanis. Re'sultats et problemes.
J.
L'Egyptologie en 1879, Vol. Tanis, in: Helck,
el-Amarna
stone pylon with a staircase
into the east wall of the stone
high,
from the is
built
enclosure wall, 84 x 84 m,
with protruding and recessed sections. The temple
rooms which must have stood here have survived, but
how
not possible to suggest
it is
they might be reconstructed.
There are also four small obelisks here, but their context unclear.
From
the
m in length. Attached to the back of
temple measured 234
main temple building was an addorsed temple with
the 10
is
pylon to the outside of the wall the
first
palm columns of Old Kingdom date and two
In total 23 obelisks have
On
to
I
of the
Khonsu-Neferhotep
main
building.
is
built against the
of a wide
consists
It
colonnaded forecourt, a pylon (measuring 8 x 45 m) and a
second court
inside.
Nothing
temple building. To the east 62 x 73 m. To the south
Nectanebo
II
and Ptolemy
is
is
a
place.
when
a church
was
built in
its
There are some well-preserved tombs and dwelling
houses decorated with plaster and mosaics. Bibliography:
123-130;
E
ad Aegyptum (Bergamo 1914)
Breccia, Alexandrea
Brinton, Restoration of the temple of Abusir,
J.Y.
in:
Archeology 1(1948) 186-87.
obelisks.
at Tanis.
the north side, a smaller temple dedicated by
Nectanebo side
been found
building was destroyed
is
known about
a
sacred lake measuring
this
main
temple to Horus built by
Tarkhan An important
Dynasty.
1st
Meidum,
Tombs No. 1060
mastaba 16.6 x36 m), No. 2038 (13.3 x 32.7 m)
(a single
and No. 2050 (15.6 x 36 m)
are elaborately niched, the
recesses being lined with wood. Bibliography:
W.M.
Flinders Petrie et
(London 1913), W.M. Flinders D.
II.
necropolis between El-Lisht and
with large mastabas of the
Wildung, Tarchan,
in:
HElck,
LA VI
Tarkhan
al.,
Petrie,
Tarkhan
1
II
and Memphis V (London 1914);
233.
The important sanctuary of the Syrian goddess Anta (equivalent to the Egyptian Mut) and
Khonsu
south-west outside the great enclosure wall.
dated to the time of
lies to
It
Siamun and Apries, but was
the reign of Ptolemy
the
originally rebuilt in
apart from
IV. All that is left,
its
Tehna (Tehneh, Akoris) On the East Bank of the Nile to
the north of Minya, a vast
archaeological site including the ruins of the ancient
town
of Akoris, with the remains of several temples.
A
from the 5th Dynasty
foundations, are the remains of the granite palm capital
Hathor temple
columns. The building, measuring 41 x 64 m, was
onwards. Remains have been found of a temple of the
constructed of limestone with
See also kings' tombs
own
its
de San,
in:
RT
203-214; W.M. Flinders
documents
9 (1887) 1-20; Maspero, Petrie, Tanis 1
1935),
1 1 (
31 1-322;
P.
1950), 12
Montet
(Paris 1933); II
P.
(
1952,)
et al.,
aux
5 (1905)
P.
Montet
et al, in:
Kemi
II
5
and ASAE 39 (1939) 529-539, 46 (1946)
Les nouvelles fouilles de Tanis (1929-1932)
Montet et 3.1, Les constructions et k
a Tanis (Paris 1957);
relatifs
ASAE
1883-1884 (London 1885),
(London 1888); Excavation reports of (
P.
Montet
period, designated A, high up in the rock,
consisting of a single
(2a.).
Bibliography: A. Mariette, Fragments et fouilles
Roman
entrance kiosk.
attested to here
is
et al.,
Le
tombeau d'Osorkon
lac sacre
de Tanis (Paris
B
niche; temple II,
is
room
rock-cut chapel with a statue
a four-room rock temple of Ramesses
with a pronaos of two rows of four columns and an
approach ramp added small
Roman
Bibliography: in:
ASAE
in the
Roman period; temple C is
LD Text II
50-54; Ahmed Bey Kamal, Fouilles a Tehneh,
4 (1903) 232-241; G. Lefebvre, Rapport sur
executees a Tehneh...,
Tehne (Akoris),
in:
in:
Helck,
ASAE
LA VI 304-305.
(
in:
BSEE 57
(1970) 19-30; R. Stadelmann, Das Grab im Tempelhof,
27 (1971) 111-123;
P.
franchise des fouilles de Tanis,
Brissaud and in:
J.
in:
Yoyotte, Mission
BIFAO 78 (1978) 130-140;
Tell
el-Amarna, see
les fouilles
6 (1905) 141-158; R. Gundlach,
1966); J. Yoyotte, Quatre annees de recherches sur Tanis 1966-1969),
MDAIK
a
rock-cut chapel.
Amarna
240 Tell
An
Tell
el-Balamun
el-Balamun tell (mound
extensive
Bronze Age of ruins), 8
km
north-west of
A-C, Hyksos) consisting of extensive
II
farmsteads with smaller dwellings arranged
like the coils
Shirbin (Delta), with the remains of a completely
of snail shells. There are brick tombs containing foreign
destroyed Ptolemaic temple. In the southern corner of
burials,
a
mud
brick enclosure, measuring 350 x 360 m,
is
brick platform, erected using cellular construction, a fortress of
Psamtek
1,
54 x 61
was enlarged under Nectanebo 420
a
for
m in size. The enclosure I
to
an area of 410 x
m and accommodates a temple to Amun (70 x 150 m)
and possibly
a birth
house; remains include a granite
some
consist of
From
the
of
them underneath
chambers roofed with a
the houses,
which
single or double vault.
same period are some mortuary temples, which
have a pylon, transverse
hall,
sanctuary with two parallel
side-rooms, and several platforms of a Canaanite type. At the western edge of the remains (Ezbet Helmi, el-Qirqafa)
is
an underground structure, 47 x 71 m,
Tell
built
naos, basalt blocks and fragments of statues. There was
by cellular construction, which would have been below
probably an earlier Ramesside structure here.
a
Bibliography: Orientalia 61 (1992) 23 1-232; A.J. Spencer,
Work of the
British
Museum at Tell el-Balamun, in: Egyptian Archaeology 7
9-11;
A.J.
(London
Spencer, Excavations at 1996);
Spencer,
A.}.
1995-1998 (London 1999); to Tell
el-Balamun,
in:
A.J.
ASAE 75
Tell
(
1995)
el-Balamun 1991-1994
Excavations at Spencer, British
Tell
el-Balamun
Museum
palace of the
were found
expedition
(1999/2000) 1-9.
Bibliography:
Avaris
el-Dab'a (Avaris) in
city
on the Pelusian
the north-east Delta, situated
around a lake south-west of Per-Ramesses, which has been identified as Avaris, the
The
capital city of the Hyksos.
earliest settlement, laid out
on an orthogonal plan,
was Egyptian and dates from the Period/ 12th Dynasty.
A
and
M.
First
large settlement
Intermediate
was formed by
the Canaanites during the 13th Dynasty (= Middle
20
40
30
Brick platform of the Hyksos palace at Tell el-Dab'a (plan by
M.
to
it,
which must have originated
Bietak, 1997)
Akad.
(London 1981); M.
LA VI 321-323; M.
d.
(184)
Wiss.
is
some in the
the Middle
Bietak, Tell ed-Dab'aJl (Vienna 1975);
Pirarnesse
spaten Mittleren Reiches,
Important remains of an extensive
branch of the Nile
in 1991/92
On the northern edge of the remains Kingdom temple of Ezbet Rushdi.
palace.
Helck,
Tell
Hyksos period. Next
late
extremely important fragments of Minoan wall paintings
M.
Bietak,
Bietak, Tell ed-Dab'a, in:
Bietak., Eine Palastanlage aus der Zeit des in:
121;
Anzeiger der
M.
Bietak,
Palastgarten, in: Levante 2 (1992) 47-75;
phil.-hist. Kl.
Der Friedhof
der Osterr. in
einem
M. Bietak, Kleine agyptische
Tempel und Wohnhauser des spaten Mittleren Reiches, in: Hommages a Jean Leclant, BdE 106
(
1993) 1-23; E. Czerny,
Tell
el-Dab'a IX. Eine
Ptansiedlung desfriihere Mittleren Reiches (Vienna 1999); M. Bietak,
The Center of Hyksos
New
Historical
Rule: Avaris, in: E. Oren, Ed., The Hyksos.
and Archaeological
Perspectives
1997)87-128.
50
60
70
80
m
(Philadelphia
Temple el-Kedua (Migdol)
Tell
An
palace of Ramesses
extensive area of ruins north-east of El-Qanta'ra,
surrounding the important border fortress
the start of
at
the 'Ways of Horus', the desert road to Palestine
New Kingdom Migdol
(Pelusium). The location of the has not yet been identified. built
by Psamtek
I
A
was
fortress
and equipped with 15 towers. Although
in thickness
withstood Nebuchadnezzar in 601 BC,
Cambyses
m
200 x 200
el-Kedua with a wall over 10
at Tell
525 BC. To the south
in
el-Herr,
an area
covered with several fortresses one upon another, the of
them being
89
m) with
a late
fired
Roman-Byzantine
it
was taken by
it
is Tell
m
last
brick walls.
Directly beside the brick enclosure lies a fortified
town with High
Priest
le
Soudan
(Lille
1988)61-71.
Onias with the permission of Ptolemy VI and
Bibliography: E. Naville, Les fouilles in:
RT 10
(
A
el-Moqdam (Leontopolis)
km
Heliopolis, in:
Helck,
C.A.
New Kingdoms.
Gomaa,
Tell
Redmount and
Berkeley
II
and monuments of the
years')
Bibliography: Edouard Naville, F.
Tell el-Jahudija, in:
ZAS
71
LA VI 331-335;
J.M. Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt (Princeton 1995) 124-129.
Ibrahim
Remains of
Awad mud
a
brick temple of the early Middle
Kingdom. Excavations
are underway.
in:
The Nile Delta
Ibrahim Awad
II
in Transition:
Kingdom
W.M. Van Haarlem, Temple
- an update,
in:
GM 154
(
at Tell
4th-3rd Millennium deposits at Tell
1996) 31-34.
south-east of Mit Ghamr, with the remains
Chouse of millions of
29-31;
de 1887,
(1935) 108-109; A.-P. Zivie,
B.C. (Tel Aviv 1992) 69-77;
in the eastern
of the temple of Miysis and Bastet built by Osorkon
Middle and
l'hiver
(London 1906); H. Ricke, Der Hohe Sand von
Bibliography: D. Eigner.A temple of the early Middle
once important kom (mound of ruins)
Delta, 10
du Delta pendant
1888) 50-56; W.M. Flinders Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite Cities
Ibrahim Awad,
Tell
by the exiled Jewish
a fort-like centre, erected
provided with a temple.
Tell
urbaines en Egypte et
Tell el-Herr, in: Societes
findspot of a large quantity of
faience tiles (architectural decoration).
fortification (88 x
Bibliography: E. Louis and D. Valebelle, Les trois dernieres fortresses
de
III,
241
R.
in:
Helck,
LA VI 351-352;
Friedman, The 1993 Field Season of the
el-Muqdam
Tell
Research Center in Egypt,
Ahnas el-Medineh (London 1894)
el-Moqdam,
Ngtosktter of the American
Project, in:
New
Temple, see also addorsed chapel, altar, ambulatory temple, barque station, birth house, 'High Sand', 'house of millions of years', kiosk, Maru temple, Meret, multiple shrine, naos, north chapel, platform, pronaos, pylon, pyramid temple, rock temple, roof chapel, sun temple, valley
temple
York 164 (Winter 1994) 1-10.
Already in the Early Dynastic Period, monumental areas, Tell
A
el-Retaba
(Tell
el-Retabeh)
temple town
fortified
at
closely linked to the palace,
Wadi Tumilat,
principally
Ramesside but dating from the Middle Kingdom.
It
is
surrounded by an enclosure measuring 200 x 480 m.
were
Early Dynastic Periods.
(possibly dedicated to
temple of Ramesses
a
Atum and
built for the divine
powers of the Pre-dynastic and
Forms were very varied and no
II
Seth) with a decorated
fac.ade. Bibliography:
W.M. Flinders
Petrie,
Hyksos and
Israelite
Cities
(London 1906) 28-34.
Tell
el-Yahudiya
Extensive
mound 20 km
brick enclosure wall, 60
north-east of Heliopolis, with a
m thick, at least
1 1
m high and
with rounded corners and an area of 450-470 sq m. interior
was
primeval
filled
mound
on which stood
complex possibly dates earlier period.
the reign of
over
it,
to the
to the
a
huge
sanctuary.
The
Middle Kingdom or an
The surface of the mound was
Ramesses
II,
who
Its
a
up with sand and was probably
erected a
levelled in
new sanctuary
of which only a few remains are preserved. Lying
west of the 'primeval mound' are the ruins of a
by
Horus-kingship. Shrines of perishable material (per)
There are the remains of a vast high gate (covering
an area of 23 x 34 m) and
had developed which
entirely served the cult of the king {hut), distinguished
The Early Dynastic Period temple of Satet
at
Elephantine
Temple tomb
242
unifying scheme indicating a centralised administration
tradition for a few years.
can be discerned. Despite a lack of finds,
temple construction, from Nubia
it
been suggested that monumental temples
began
has recently
brick
built of
to exist as early as the time of the Unification.
Evidence available to date a) Late Pre-historic
sanctuary of Min
at
Koptos, with
columns produced
c)
Old Kingdom.
d)
Primeval
mound
at
Hierakonpolis between the
appear. State building
Late Pre-dynastic period and 2nd/3rd Dynasty, with
Museum
Egyptian
(Fig.) of brick
e)
Cairo).
Khasekhemwy (now
Above
f)
it
a
in the
multiple shrine
(Old or Middle Kingdom).
in Turin).
Limestone fragments of a shrine of Djoser from
Heliopolis (now in Turin). g)
at
Giza (uninscribed). Other stone temples
from the 4th Dynasty onwards are attested
to
by
The sun sanctuary of Niuserre
From
columns reached
the Middle
at
Abu Ghurob.
Kingdom onwards,
new high
a
capitals
point. Hellenistic
more
arrangement of individual elements. In
spite of this,
and show
traditional forms dominated,
flexible
flexibility
by the
dominant structure
new type of birth house
encircled by chapels, as well as a
surrounded by a colonnade with screen walls. This development was frozen all
Roman
in the
period with a
divine temples.
Bibliography (select): Perrot, L'Egypte 323-450; E. Baldwin Smith,
coinciding with
the reduction in the divine standing of the king
and the
growing importance of the gods themselves, the gods'
Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression (New York and London 1938); in:
P.
Gilbert,
Elements hellenistiques de l'architecture de Philae,
(1961) 196-208; Frank Teichmann, Der Mensch und sein
CdE 36
primitive brick shrines were replaced by stone structures
Tempel. Agypten (Stuttgart 1978);
(multiple shrine). The growing independence of cult
de temples sur plates-formes a pieux, de
structures led to the development of particular features:
in:
separation of sacred and secular architecture, together
A
with a reduction in the concept of the temple as a house;
Tempel,
axial construction;
temple construction,
proportions, greater sense of space and
standardised plan for
individual finds. h)
to
to
the Ptolemies
and the development of pronaoi and composite
creation of the barque sanctuary as a
The almost completely preserved temple of
Harmakhis
programmes under
and Romans gave a fresh impetus
for
and
columns with composite capitals started
first
building concepts can be discerned in the slender
Limestone fragments of a shrine of the 2nd or 3rd
Dynasty from Gebelein (now
a renaissance of
main buildings of
preferably built of hard stone. Hypaetral sanctuaries
the
decorated granite blocks of
and courtyards. Squat
ancient Egyptian traditions: the
temple of the Old Kingdom.
a brick
to the
The main
temples had a completely closed facade, and were
Early Dynastic sanctuary of Khentyimentyu at
Abydos, replaced by
style.
a feeling of closeness.
The 26-30th Dynasties experienced
b) Early Dynastic sanctuary of Satet at Elephantine,
way
the
temple building formed a stretched out unit, divided into
colossal statues of Min (now in Oxford).
built over in the
all
Mediterranean coast, continued the older
sections by a succession of pylons
as follows:
is
Ramesside programmes of
emphasis on gateways; the sanctuary
BIFAO 83 (1983) 263-296;
Monnet
J.
Saleh, Les representations
la poterie
Patricia Spencer,
gerzeenne d'Egypte,
The Egyptian Temple.
Lexicographical Study (London, Boston, etc. 1984); R. Stadelmann, in:
Helck,
and Symbol of
LA VI 353-357;
R.B.
Fmneslad, Image of the World
the Creator (Wiesbaden, 1985); D. Arnold, Tempel-
(naos) often enlarged into a multiple shrine. From the
architektur, in: Helck, LA VI 359-363; D.Arnold, Die
Thutmoside period onwards, the increasing importance of
(Zurich 1992) 14-28; Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee; David O'Connor, The
processions of the gods (Hatshepsut, Karnak) promoted
status of early Egyptian temples:
the creation of the
New Kingdom
processional temples
with processional ways, series of pylons and barque stations. traditions
The impulse of the Upper Egyptian building
(Mentuhotep Nebhepetre)
up of the temple
front with
led to the opening
monumental hypostyle
halls.
Ambulatory temples start to appear. Within the temple, halls of columns take on great significance. At the same time, the thickness of walls
is
reduced, allowing rooms to
be widened and enabling the interior of the temple largely taken
up by columned
for transverse halls.
halls.
to
be
Very large buildings were erected for
Memnoneion, Soleb). The development
Amarna
an alternative theory, in: The Followers
Oxbow Monograph
ofHorus: Studies dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman,
20 (1992) 83-98; M. Bietak,'G6tterwohnung und Menschenwohnung. Die Entstehung eines Tempeltyps des Mittleren Reiches aus der zeitgenbssischen Wohnarchitektur, D.
van der
Stefan
Plas,
Tempel
in
Agypten,
Wimmer, Egyptian temples
in: in:
in
Kurth, Tempeltagung 13-22; Kurth, Tempeltagung 239-254;
Canaan and
Egyptology Presented to Miriam Lichtheim,
Sinai, in: Studies in
Jerusalem 1990,
II,
Egypt 296-311;
1065-1106;
Dieter
R. Wilkinson,
The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt London, 2000).
Kurth,
in:
Schulz-Seidel,
(
There was a preference
the cult of the king in the reign of Amenhotep
the Aten, during the
Tempel Agyptens
III
(Luxor,
of the temples of
period, interrupted the
Temple tomb The concept of the mastaba became the Old
Kingdom by
numbers of rooms
distorted as early as
the incorporation of increasing
in the interior core of the
mastaba;
this
Teti,
expanded
in the 6th
Dynasty, resulting in monumental
pyramid of
243
Terraced temple
temple tombs. In the Middle Kingdom the concept of the
Following the principle that, in theory,
mastaba became an archaising trend, the
temples stand on a primeval
mound
all
Egyptian
cult
complex
being changed by the adoption of elements from
pyramid
sites lie
new form
of temple
desert, the sanctuary area of every Egyptian temple
temples and ^-houses
to
become
a
tomb (Ihy and Hetep, Inpy, Mentuhotep
(vizier)
and
and
that building
on ground which naturally rose towards the is
raised above the level of the front parts by at least one
some
Senwosretankh). The influence of royal tomb complexes
step. In
and temples dedicated
connected by ramps, rising to a height of up to 20 m,
tombs erected
at
to
gods
Asyut and
The concept of
a
temple tombs of the
is
apparent in the large
Qaw el-Kebir.
temple of the gods
cases there
New Kingdom, where
it
adopted in
temples of Mentuhotep Nebhepetre, Hatshepsut and
appears in
Thutmosis
and an
enclosure wall fronted by a pylon. The central room
is
III at
temple of Opet
house
officials'
tombs
standing on a
I
Abydos and the
at
flat
surface are also
frequently distinguished by a high platform, e.g. the
with a small pyramid; side-rooms serve to accommodate of Hapu,
Deir el-Bahari, Sety
Ramesseum. Temples
usually the principal cult centre, occasionally topped
(Amenhotep - son
terraces
the result being a true terraced temple, such as the is
the form of the multiple shrine with a forecourt
statues
was a succession of
of
at
Karnak, the temple of Luxor, the birth
Kom Ombo
and
others.
Bibliography: D. Arnold, Terrassentempel,
at
in:
Helck,
LA VI 456-457.
Saqqara). The burial complexes were accessible via a shaft.
Examples of this type
in the
22nd- 26th Dynasties
the
monumental Theban tombs of the
structures except the pylon
Late Period,
all
the
of Teti Endure', stands on the northern plateau at
exist in
the necropoleis of Alexandria. Bibliography: Eigner, Grabbauten; Geoffrey
Tombs of Memphis (London 1991); Karl der Grabarchitektur des Neuen Reiches,
J.
in:
T.
Martin, The Hidden
Seyfried, Entwicklung in
Problems and Priorities
in
Saqqara. The base length of the pyramid was 78.75 (150 cubits) and
it
was erected
five
at
in
steps.
The sarcophagus chamber
The rooms inside were
is
Saqqara (reconstruction by
The pyramid temple
F.-U. Golvin, 1997)
m deep.
roofed with three layers of
relieving slabs; like the antechamber, Texts.
m
reached a height of 52.5 m. The core
constructed inside an open trench in the rock, 10
Pyramid
Egyptian Archaeology 219-253.
Temple tombs of Horemheb, Maya and Ramose
pyramid of
The severely ruined pyramid complex of Teti, 'The Places
and enclosure walls have
moved underground. Graeco-Roman examples
Teti,
In
Medinet Habu.
are found to the west of the temple of
it
is
inscribed with
(Fig.) follows a
6th
Thebes
244
Dynasty plan. The causeway and valley temple have not yet
been discovered.
and other
cult areas
on the West Bank. Amenhotep
Bibliography: Vito Maragioglio and Celeste Rinaldi, Notizie sulle
palace town
PiramididiZedefrd.Zedkard
West Bank complexes.
and
J.
Isesi, Teti
Leclant, Le temple haut
(Turin 1962), Plate
du complex funeraire du
Lauer
9; J.-Ph.
mortuary temples
In addition, there are further private
at
Malqata
lies at
The density of these
roi Teti (Cairo
the southern
Ill's
end of the
made
religious institutions
Thebes
into the religious capital of the country as early as
des pyramides a textes (Cairo 1996) 43-68, 132, 140, 158, 161, 172;
in the
18th Dynasty, while the administrative capital
Lehner, Complete Pyramids 156-157.
moved
to
Despite
this,
the true
home of the essence of traditional Egypt, making
1972); Stadelmann,
Pyramiden 188-191; A. Labrousse,
L'architecture
Thebes The
site
of Thebes developed relatively
Dynasty, from modest beginnings to largest
temple
cities
late, in
the 11th
become one of
the
of the Old World, called 'hundred-
it
Memphis, and
a powerful force not to
ruling
later to
Thebes remained the
still
Habu and Deir
km,
and near Abu el-Gud (200
divided diagonally or bounded on here
Nile,
c.
km
1
wide
(its
its
eastern side by the
course in antiquity
known). The temple landscape on the East Bank of large temple precincts, the central the
Month
precinct
on
its
2.5
is
Aten
Mut
precinct in
to the east and,
hills.
The
tombs
of the
latter in the Valley
West
1
In
Upper Egyptian uprising from 207-06
the
187-86 BC,
to
Theban
events that initiated the gradual decay of the
monuments. Despite
all
damage
these ruins have suffered, they
temples in the world. There have been numerous
of the Kings (Biban el-Muluk) and the
tombs of queens and
royal
scientific
attempts since the Napoleonic Expedition of
1799 to document the buildings, and their inscriptions,
which are a unique source
pharaonic religion, history and
children in the Valley of the Queens (Biban el-Melikat).
Bibliography (selected): Charles
Lying along the edge of the cultivation are the associated cult complexes,
BC Thebes was badly damaged by
661
religious significance of
1- 17th and 18-20th Dynasties, the
Valley, as well as the
Amun
north of the
form one of the most impressive areas of tombs and
Thebes was enhanced by the presence of more than 50 kings'
m
are dispersed
the West Bank, thousands of rock
along the base of the
el-Medina, besides the Month precinct,
Assyrians, and probably again during the anti-Ptolemaic
km to the south, beside the Nile, the Luxor temple. On tombs
of
Medinet
precinct).
not
formed
Amun precinct with
north side, the
the south, Akhenaten's temple to the
is
Clusters
habitations so far excavated are at Malqata,
spread over a trapezoidal area of land covering
5 x 7
and
be underestimated by those
Memphis and Alexandria.
in
gated Thebes' by Homer. Dozens of sanctuaries are c.
the eastern Delta. religious centre
(London 1965); Eberhard
'houses of millions of years'.
Stdtten
(Munich 1968).
and
art.
Otto, Osiris
restitue
reliefs
understanding
Nims, Thebes of the Pharaohs
F.
und Amun: Kult und
R. Stadelmann,
465-473; Auffrere, L'Egypte
for
1
Theben,
Helck,
in:
heilige
LA VI
53-214; Friederike Kampp, Die
'Houses of millions of years' at Thebes (north to south)
thebanische Nekropole (Mainz 1996); N. and H. Strudwick, Thebes in
Setyl
Egypt (London 1999).
Amenhotep
and Ahmose-Nefertari
I
Thoth
Hatshepsut
Thutmosis
III (at
Hill,
Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
Thutmosis
Ramesses IV
Thutmosis
Thutmosis
III,
Ill's
temple of (Deir el-Bahari)
'house of millions of years', known as
Djeser-akhet, was constructed at Deir el-Bahari on a
III
high platform, so that
Siptah
Amenhotep Ramesses
see Sankhkare
Deir el-Bahari)
II
it
rises
above the
level of the
temples of Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut.
II
(Ramesseum)
were discovered in 1962 by
J.
Lipihska.
Its
remains
The complex
Thutmosis IV
included a valley temple (yet to be discovered) and a
Tawosret
processional way, the lower part of which was planted
Merenptah
with two rows of trees. Halfway towards the temple stood
Amenhotep
III
III
station.
m
An enormous ramp
led
up
to the
above the ground. The front of the
temple seems to have consisted of a pillared pronaos-
II
Ay and Horemheb
Ramesses
barque
temple, set 20
Ramesses IV Thutmosis
a
(Medinet Habu)
like structure.
This was followed by a large hypostyle
hall with eight taller
columns which
raised the centre
Timber surrounded by columns of lesser height.
ba§ilica-style,
Behind
this part
was the
central sanctuary with cult
el-Bahari, in:
ET
16 (1992) 263-269;
Temple of Thutmosis
III
1978-1980,
J.
in:
Lipinska, Deir el-Bahari,
ET
image chambers and other groups of rooms along both
Beaux, La chapelle d'Hathor de Thoutmosis
Thousands of fragments of shattered wall decoration have been found, some of them beautifully
Studies in
sides.
same height
shrine
cave
as the
Iubilate Conlegae:
(San Antonio 1995) 59-66.
Mentuhotep temple was the
Hathor cow, belonging
of the
14 (1990) 365-367; N.
III, in:
Tiled casing, see architectural ceramics
painted, emphasising the ka aspect of the king's cult.
At the
Memory ofAbedlAziz Sadek
245
Thutmosis temple. In 1906, the
the
to
made
cult image,
of
Timber, see a/so timber construction Native timber species attested to in Egyptian architecture
crown of thorns (Zizyphus
limestone was found completely undamaged inside the
are acacia {Acacia nilotica),
completely preserved sanctuary (now in the Egyptian
spina Christi), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera),
Museum, Cairo).
{Hyphaene thebaica), sycamore {Ficus sycomorus),
To the north of the
Ramesseum
are the remains of
another 'house of millions of years' of Thutmosis called Henket-ankh. This sanctuary, erected
III,
on two
tamarisk ( Tamarix Foreign
nilotica,
-
species
T.
fir
dom palm
articulata).
{Abies
cicilica),
(Juniper us phoenicea), cedar (Cedrus libani)
juniper
and cypress
had a facade with 10 statue pillars and was
(Cupressus sempervirens) - were imported by state-
surrounded by an brick enclosure, measuring 85 x 148
controlled shipping companies from Palestinian, Syrian
m, with a pylon. A sun temple and
and Anatolian
terraces,
also attested
a
Hathor cult area are
to.
Bibliography: Herbert Ricke, Der Totentempel Thutmoses
III.
(Cairo
1939); Jadwiga Lipiiiska, The architectural design of the temple of
Thutmosis
III at
Deir el-Bahari,
Lipihska, Deir-el-Bahari
(Warsaw 1977); el-Bahari,
in:
P.
CdE
II.
in:
MDAIK 25
Gilbert, Le
ET
J.
14 (1990) 61-90;
J.
III.
Architecture
temple de Thoutmosis
III
temple
at
III
Some remarks
Deir el-Bahari,
Mortuary temple of Thutmosis
du temple de Thoutmosis
III
north of the
in:
d'Amon
a Deir el-Bahari, in:
Wiercinska, Les dimensions de
suivant les donnees
a Deir
III
Wiercinska, La procession
decoration du temple de Thoutmosis
d'Amon
1969) 85-89; Jadwiga
104 (1977) 252-259; M. Dolinska,
Kurth, Tempeltagung 33-45; la
(
The Temple of Thutmosis
about the function of the Thutmosis
dans
sites,
and from Crete and Cyprus. The
requirement for timber was already considerable during
Ramesseum
the 1st Dynasty for ceiling construction in mastabas.
An import
of 40 shiploads
Sneferu. Timber-felling
is
of the hypostyle hall at
Lebanon
Bibliography:
V. Loret,
to
recorded in the reign of
Karnak
probably fictional character, travelled to
is
illustrated
on the outside wall
(19th Dynasty).
Wenamun
The
(20th Dynasty),
purchase timber.
Quelques notes sur
l'arbre ach, in:
ASAE
16
(1916) 33-51; Jequier, Manuel 5-9; Lucas, AEMI 429-456; C. Muller, Holz,
in:
Helck,
LA
II
1264-1269; Russell Meiggs, Trees and Timber
Ancient Mediterranean
la
barque
the
III
a Deir
Nicholson, Materials 334-371.
(plan by Herbert Ricke, 1939)
World (Oxford-New York
in
1982);
Timber construction
246
Timber construction
the Late Period, in exceptionally wide kiosks, entrance
The shortage of native-grown timber
in
Egypt did not
the erection of separate timber structures;
facilitate
possible exceptions
may have been
naoi, barque shrines,
throne kiosks and catafalques. Timber was used in association with brick, mainly in
door frames,
construct
window lintels, and
house
building, to
and
thresholds, wall recesses
also the shafts of columns. In houses
and
halls
example the Augustus kiosk
similar, for
Philae (11.5
m
was extensive
Demand
wide).
at
in the building industry
for ships, sledges
and scaffolding.
Bibliography: Borchardt, Nefer-ir-ke-Re 19-22; Arthur E.R. Boak,
Soknopaiou Nesos (Michigan 1935); 1269-1270;
II
P.
D. Arnold, Holzbau, in: Helck,
LA
Grossmann, Holzbewehrung im rbmischen und
spatantiken Mauerwerk in Agypten,
Bautechnik der Antike
in:
of the Ptolemaic period to late antiquity (Medinet Madi,
(Mainz 1991) 56-62; Dieter Arnold, Holzdacher spatzeitlicher
Dima, Karanis, Abu Mena),
agyptischer Tempel,
the corners of walls, wall
Kingdom onwards, door
foundations and, from the Old
in:
M.
Bietak, Ed., Archaische Griechische Tempel
und Altagypten (Vienna 2001) 107-1
15.
frames were reinforced with intricate timberwork. Instances of timber panelling are found at ceilings in
Dima.
Flat
tombs (mastabas of Abydos and Saqqara
tomb
Tjary (Try, Thery),
Monumental rock tomb of
of
the Late Period at Giza.
3505, 3504 and 3036) and houses from the early dynastic
cult
period onwards were in principle constructed of timber
chapels in a cruciform arrangement.
beams, although expensive timber
ceilings
were
if
replaced with a brick vault. Stairs were
possible
sometimes surfaced with timber wear. Building
ramps, brick
as a protection against
pillars
and
large enclosure
walls were regularly reinforced with timber beams
masonry
into the brick
an angle
M. Flinders
Petrie, Gizeh
and
Rifeh
(London
1907) 28-29; Wafaa El-Sadeek, Twenty-Sixth Dynasty Necropolis at Gizeh:
An
Analysis of the
fur Afrikanistik
Tomb of Thery,
Publications of the Institute
und Agyptologie No. 29 (Vienna
1984).
Tjay,
tomb
of
were as props
A monumental rock tomb (TT 23), dating from the reign
protection in chambers threatened with
of Merenptah, with a pylon, pillared forecourt and, cut at
Bent Pyramid and the pyramid of
collapse: in the
Amenemhat III
at
Dahshur, and in the construction of a
bridge across the King's Road
beams were
Bibliography: William
The
and three
hall
fitted
(in walls, either horizontally or at
to their course). Exceptional uses
to provide
complex consists of an entrance
5
m
long and 60
combined with stone was used
at
cm
Amarna, where in diameter.
in only a
the
Timber
few rare cases
sacred buildings: in flagpoles, more than 30
m
in
high,
an angle deep
in the rock, a
hall aligned
broad
on the
hall
axis.
with two chapels and a
Behind
this lies a
chamber, containing a granite sarcophagus, and a chapel surrounded on three sides by rock Bibliography:
LD
Text
III
252-253; Plan,
PM
I
1
rock cult
statues. 30;
F.
Kampp, Die
thebanische Nekropole (Mainz 1996) 206-209.
along the facades of pylons or in association with doors.
Timber
ceilings
do not appear
in
temple buildings until
Tomb, see cenotaph, kings' tombs, mastaba, queens' tombs, saff tomb Bibliography (general): D. Arnold, Grab, J.
Assmann
et al., Ed.,
in:
Helck,
LA
II
826-837;
Thebanische Beamtennekropolen, Studien zur
Archaologie und Geschichte Altagyptens 12 (Heidelberg 1995); Friederike J.
Kampp, Die thebanische Nekropole (Mainz
Seyfried, Entwicklung in der Grabarchitektur des
Problems and Priorities
in
1996); Karl
Neuen Reiches, in:
Egyptian Archaeology, 219-253; Barbara
Engelmann-von Carnap, Die Struktur des thebanischen Beamtenfriedhofs in der ersten Halfte der 18. Dynastie (Berlin 1999).
Tombs of 2nd Dynasty kings gallery
at Saqqara, see
tomb
Torus moulding, see cavetto cornice, torus
moulding Town, see also pyramid town Corner of house A.E.R. Boak)
II
201 at Dima, reinforced with timber beams (after
Concentrations of dwellings housing several thousand inhabitants, similar to towns,
had already come
into
Town existence between
4800 and 3600 BC (Merimde,
247
accommodation made out of rough stones and
of basic
240,000 sq m; El-Ma'adi, 180,000 sq m; El-Omari).
occasionally have a small shrine. They were often
Planned settlements from the period of the Unification
protected against attack by an enclosure wall.
led to the formation of fortified settlements built
on
round or oval plan (Elephantine, El-Kab) with
their
principal streets intersecting to form a cross.
The
embryos from which towns developed were the
royal
residences
and
pyramid
fortresses,
About any other
a
foundations
we can
make
only
sites,
such as the capitals of nomes,
guesses, supported by the position of
temples, form and extent of rubble heaps, former
branches of the
Nile,
and so on. When attempting
calculate the size of Egyptian
we must
to
towns and their population
(pyramid town) and divine temples which developed
size
from the Middle Kingdom onwards.
focus tended to change frequently, so that parts of towns
Excavations afford us a glimpse into small- to
medium-sized new towns, state:
in
some
cases founded by the
Abydos, Amarna, Aniba, Buhen, Deir el-Medina,
Edfu, Elephantine, El-Lisht North, Kahun, Medinet
Habu,Sesebi,Tellel-Dab'a.
would
largest
towns (Alexandria,
Buto, Sais, Mendes, Tanis, Bubastis, Heliopolis, Memphis, Herakleopolis, Hermopolis, Thebes)
remain largely unexplored; excavation of town
area. Population density
calculated to have been 500
is
heads per hectare (10,000 sq m), so that a town of million sq
m would have had a maximum population of
50,000.
Major towns/cities: areas and
Town/city
over them. The governing focus was the temple precinct in the centre,
occupying up
area, with
processional ways which, with their high
maximum
populations (approx.)
one quarter of the
Dimensions
Area
(m)
(mn
Max. pop.
m2
)
total
Alexandria
2000x1600
3.2
160,000
Tanis
1200x1600
2
100,000
instead divided the town into distinct quarters. The
Piramesse
1500x2500
3.75
187,500
continual growth of the temple precincts, together with
Mendes/
1600x600
1
50,000
its
enclosure walls were not accessible to general
traffic,
but
the subsequent erection of enclosure walls, caused the
Thmuis
Dwelling houses several
Bubastis
900x2100
1.89
94,500
Heliopolis
900x1800
1.6
80,000
Memphis
1300x2000
2.6
130,000
Kahun
400 x 350
1.4
7000
Antinopolis
500 x 540
0.27
13,500
Amarna
1000x2000
2.0
100,000
Karnak-Luxor
1000x2000
loss of large areas of the towns.
storeys high were frequent even in smaller settlements, reflecting a shortage of space. Other in
determining factors
town development were alignment
and
relating to the Nile
canals, orientation according to the points of the
compass,
strict
status
social
division of the quarters according to
and, in the later cities (Alexandria,
Memphis), according
to
nationality.
There
is
no
surviving evidence of public spaces, market places,
warehouses and the
like in
pharaonic towns (although,
they did exist, they were perhaps
if
beside a canal or river
The
was often given
special
emphasis. Streets were occasionally paved with bricks
and provided with
gutters.
are found at Karanis,
Ptolemaic-Roman examples
2.5
125,000
50x132
0.0066
330
Koptos
1800x1500
2.5
135,000
Elephantine
200x225
0.045
2250
90x180
0.016
800
200x400
0.08
4000
200x500
0.1
5000
200x270
0.054
2700
New Kingdom,
are preserved near the
Deir el-Medina, Gebel el-Zet
(a
gypsum
work
Aniba
New Kingdom Buhen
New Kingdom
Dima and Medinet Madi.
Workmen's settlements with accommodation for several hundred workers, dating from the Old Kingdom to the
500 x 1000
Deir el-Medina
Old Kingdom
bank). 'governor's' residence
area:
quarry in the
Sesebi
Bibliography (select; see further under place names): H.W. Fairman,
Town Planning
(1960) 1-12;
Kingdom
1972);
amethyst mines to the south-east of
Aswan), Wadi el-Garawi (an Old Kingdom settlement, 30
km
south of Cairo). These settlements consist mostly
in
Pharaonic Egypt (Liverpool 1949) (not seen);
A. Badawy, Orthogonal
Faiyum), Wadi el-Hudi (a fortified settlement of the Old at the
that
sites is
hindered by groundwater and modern structures erected
to
and remain uninhabited, and
into disuse
the temple precincts covered a large portion of the total
1
The habitation areas of the
fall
main
take into account the fact that the
B.J.
P.J.
and Axial Town Planning
Ucko, Ed.,
Kemp, The
ZAS 85
early development of towns in Egypt, in:
Antiquity 5 (1977) 185-200;
source for the
in Egypt, in:
Man, Settlement and Urbanism (London
B.
Kemp, The
city of
el-Amarna as a
study of urban society in ancient Egypt,
in:
World
Trajan, kiosk of (Philae)
248
Archaeology 9 (1977-78) 123-139; M. Bietak, Stadtanlage,
LA V 1233-1249; 1988);
Huat
Eric
Dominique
et al.,
Uphill, Egyptian
in:
Helck,
Towns and Cities (Aylesbury
Valbelle, L'Egypte pharaonique, in: Jean-Louis
Naissance des Cites (Paris 1990) 255-322; Diana Craig
Patch, The Origin dissertation
P.
(
and Development of Urbanism
Philadelphia
und Stadtentwicklung
1
in
Ancient Egypt,
99 1 ) Martin Ziermann, Befestigungsanlagen ;
in der Friihzeit
und im
Alten Reich (Mainz
1993); Christian Tietze,
Amarna, Wohn- und Lebensverhaltnisse
einer agyptischen Stadt,
in:
Bietak,
in
House and Palace 231-237.
An
inscription at the stone quarries at Gebel el-Silsila
men
records that 3000
materials for Ramesses
transported the construction
Ill's
temple
at
Medinet Habu on
40 ships. Some ostraka record the quantities of stone
Ramesseum.
material transported to the
blocks each weighing
1
2.5 million
tonne were brought from local
quarries for the pyramid of Khufu. The weight of a single
load
moved
Old and Middle Kingdoms did not
in the
exceed 60-120 tonnes. In the
New Kingdom,
statues
and
obelisks weighing 300-500 tonnes were transported
from the quarries
at
Aswan. Colossi weighing up
to
1000
tonnes were successfully transported in the reigns of
Amenhotep
III
and Ramesses
II.
The only means of transport
for
construction
materials attested to archaeologically are rollers, ropes
and sledges, the
latter
towed by
requiring solid roads and ramps.
and experiments
men
or oxen and
Modern experience
indicate that towing required three
men
per tonne, provided that friction was reduced by wetting the surface of the road.
Ramesses
II
It is
calculated that the colossus of
could have been towed by either 1000
men
or 200 oxen. Bibliography: Arnold, Building 57-66, 281-282;
R.
Partridge,
Transport in Ancient Egypt (London 1996).
Carrying bricks on yokes, as depicted
Schematic plan of the
New Kingdom workmen's
Medina, showing houses and
in the
tomb of Rekhmire
village at Deir el-
streets
Trajan, kiosk of (Philae), see Augustus, kiosk
of (Philae) Transport, see also
wheeled transport
Weight bearers and donkeys were a natural means of transport; unwieldy or heavy loads were carried using
yokes carried on the shoulder or on stretchers, some
examples of which have been found. Divine barques were carried at
on
stretchers, in the case of the
Karnak on
the shoulders of 40
barque of Amun
men. Wherever
possible,
overland distance was minimised by transport on boats.
Pushing and pulling a sledge loaded with a block of stone, as depicted in the
tomb of Rekhmire
tomb
Ty,
ramp
Transport road, see
and clothing of the people depicted
of
are Greek. There are
the remains of two chapels dedicated by Ptolemy Try,
tomb
tomb
see Tjary,
of,
of
cult of the sacred
1
6
of ruins) between Abukir
m thick, measuring 454 x 5
in two, with a
within that
it
1
and
temple enclosure wall,
4 m. The interior
limestone temple,
c.
136
divided
is
Museum
was
built
by Philip Arrhidaeus (323-316 BC). Mound of the Jew and
the City of
Onias (London 1890) 28; C.C. Edgar, Report on the Excavations
ASAE 7
des Ptolemaus
995-998; D.
enclosure. Foundation deposits indicate
in:
at
(1906) 205-212.
Ty,
Perdrizet,
tomb
I.
NF
Rapport sur
Soter in Hildesheim,
(1961);
Keffler,
Tuna
Hildesheim).
reign
S.
el-Gebel, in: Helck,
mastaba
of Niuserre,
is
The rooms
at
d'Hermoupolis
des
Museums zu
Helck,
in:
LA IV
LA VI 797-804.
inside the
one half of the
recess, which has a serdab,
Important features are the Ptolemaic animal cemeteries
pillared courtyard.
interior of the
The
Saqqara (D
notable for
Extensive necropoleis at Hermopolis, west of Deirut.
false
in: Zeitschrift
Nakaten, Petosiris,
Tuna el-Gebel
provided with cult structures
lesfouilles
of
This 5th Dynasty
decoration.
in the south (El-Fasagi)
at
ouest (Touna el-Gebel) (Cairo 1941); Philippe Derchain, Zwei Kapellen
Hildesheim,
own
Bibliography: Edouard Xaville, The
Sami Gabra and Paul
m long, at the rear
its
Toukh el-Qaramous,
to the
Bibliography: Gustave Lefebvre, Le tombeau de Petosiris (Cairo 1924);
(in the Delta) containing a
Hehia
I
baboons of Thoth (parts of them now
reconstructed in the Pelizaeus
Tukh el-Qaramus A once vast kom (mound
249
is
its
22), of the
unique
relief
mastaba take up only
L-shaped
core.
followed by a
The door
monumental
offering chamber, containing a
door and a large serdab,
is
reached by a corridor.
above ground (Ibiotapheion) and extensive subterranean
Like the mastaba of Mereruka, that of Ty has an
catacombs.
unusually large burial chamber with a sarcophagus niche
Behind the Ibiotapheion, underneath the dunes, are a
number
of almost completely preserved house- and
temple-like
tomb
structures in a wealth of forms, dating
from the Ptolemaic and stairs lead in
many
Roman
periods. Free-standing
cases to a high podium, on which
stands a temple tomb. Built in a mixed Egyptian-Greek style,
many
of
them have
a
pronaos, behind which
actual cult chapel with wall recesses, apses paintings.
below.
The
burial
chambers are cut
The most important complex
is
in
is
the
and wall the rock
the temple
tomb
of Petosiris, the deified high priest of Hermopolis (c.
300-285 BC).
pronaos
at
It is
ground
built in
level,
pure Egyptian
style
with four columns
joined to a hall containing four
pillars.
and has a
at the front,
The motifs of the
wall decoration are Egyptian (hieroglyphs), while the style
Temple tomb of Ptolemais
in the necropolis of
Tuna el-Gebel
and an enormous sarcophagus. Bibliography: Georg Steindorff, Das Grab des Ti (Leipzig 1913); L.
Epron and H. Wild.Le tombeau de
Ti,
3 Pts (Cairo 1933-1966).
u Unas, pyramid of
transport on ships, market scenes, starving Bedouin,
The pyramid of Unas,
called 'The Places of
south of the precinct of Djoser
Complete',
lies
Saqqara.
measured 57.75 sq
It
slope of 53°,
importance of
Unas are
and this
its
m
(110 cubits), with a
original height
pyramid
is
at
that
it
on
fits,
was the
and Pepy
chamber has
in
J.
to
from both
it
sides. This
temple
development terms, between those of Niuserre II.
MRA
Bibliography:
a ceiling of
are situated
broad terrace above the harbour basin, with
approach ways leading
contain Pyramid Texts, both in the antechamber and in the sarcophagus chamber. This
a
was 43 m. The first to
Remains of the valley temple
battle scenes).
VIII 98ff.; A. Labrousse, J.-Ph. Lauer
Leclant, he temple haut
du complexe funeraire du
roi
relieving slabs; the black basalt sarcophagus of the king
1977); A.M. Moussa, Excavations in the valley temple of King
stands in a recess decorated with a palace facade. The
Saqqara,
pyramid temple
follows the plan typical of the 5th
6th Dynasties; granite palm are
columns from
its
and
in:
ASAE
Unas
at
70 (1984-85) 33-34; Stadelmann, Pyramiden
184-188; Peter Munro, Der Unas-Friedhof Nord-West
courtyard
and
Ounas (Cairo
I
(Mainz 1993);
A. Labrousse, L'architecture des pyramides a textes (Cairo 1996) 15-41,
now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the Louvre, the Museum and the MMA. Considerable parts of the
98,114,116,131,139,158,161,172.
British
causeway, which several times,
is
666
and of
m
its
long,
and changes direction
Uronarti
relief
decoration are either
A
preserved or have been reconstructed (showing column
triangular fortress of Senwosret
Cataract, south of
Wadi
at
III
named
Haifa,
the Second
Khesef-Iunu,
measuring 57 x 114 x 126 m, with strong bastions and closely positioned turrets
on the
walls.
There are remains
of a commander's residence and a temple dedicated to
Senwosret
III,
Month and Re- Horakhty, which was
rebuilt
in stone in the 18th Dynasty. Bibliography: G.A. Reisner, The Egyptian forts from Haifa to Semna, in:
Kush 8 (1960) 13-16; Dows Dunham, Uronarti Shalfak Mirgissa,
Second Cataract
Forts, Vol. II
(Boston 1967) 3-112; C. van Siden
III,
The Chapel ofSesostris III at Uronarti (San Antonio 1982); K. ZibeliusChen, Uronarti,
in:
Helck,
LA VI 893-894.
Userkaf, pyramid of The pyramid precinct 'Pure
Saqqara
is
are the Places of
Userkaf
partially orientated towards the
precinct of Djoser. Like the
latter,
it
at
nearby
has a north-south
alignment, with the entrance in the south-eastern corner.
The mortuary
cult
and the cult temple are separated: on
the east side of the pyramid cult area
temple
to the south of the
is
is
life-size statue
Museum, Plan of the pyramid temple of Unas
at
Saqqara
(after R.
Stadelmann)
pillars, as well as royal
and dolerite (the head of a more than
of the deified king
Cairo).
three-roomed
pyramid, having a wide
courtyard surrounded by granite statues of granite
a small
with a false door, while the cult
mortuary
The
is
now
in the
Egyptian
three or five niches in the southern
part of the building probably contained further statues of
Userkaf, sun temple of
the king. In the south-western corner
was a secondary
pyramid. The remains of some of the outstanding
were probably re-used
in the
pyramid of
reliefs
Amenemhat
I
The pyramid, which was 73.30 x 73.30 m, high, and had an angle of slope of 53°, is evidence of
I
251
Userkaf, sun temple of The badly damaged sun temple of Userkaf north-west of the pyramids
at
lies
400
Abusir. Originally
m it
at
El-Lisht.
contained an obelisk erected on a elevated base within a
49
m
rectangular cult courtyard (61 x 61
m)
with rounded
the decline, at the start of the 5th Dynasty, in the
corners, later enlarged to 49 x 86
importance of pyramids in the concept of the deification
of the base of the obelisk, measuring 21 x 21 m, are two
m. In front of the east
side
of the king. The rooms inside the pyramid were faced
chapels each with a statue shrine, a brick altar standing
with limestone; the saddle roof of the sarcophagus
between them. Several buildings are
chamber was
the approach to the obelisk from the south. In the valley,
Bibliography:
J.-P.
a Saqqarah, in:
the
built of blocks of limestone. Lauer, Le temple haut de la
ASAE 53
(1955)
Pyramid of Userkaf,
in:
1
pyramid du
roi
Ouserkaf
19-133; A. El-Khouly, Excavations
JSSEA 15 (1985) 86-87;
at
J.-Ph. Lauer,
publication in process; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 159-163; Edwards,
Pyramids of Egypt 171-174; Lehner, Complete Pyramids 140-141.
Reconstructed plan of the sun temple of Userkaf
at
built into the front of
connected to the sun temple by a causeway, are the
remains of an important stone temple, measuring 34.7 x 52.5
m, with
a pillared courtyard
and
five to
shrines, similar to the valley temple at the Bibliography: Ricke, Userkaf.
Abusir (after Herbert Ricke)
seven statue
Bent Pyramid.
V Valley temple
From
Bibliography: Bernhard Grdseloff, Das dgyptische Reinigungszelt
end of the 12th
the reign of Sneferu until the
Dynasty, valley temples were constructed along edge of the cultivation
and on the banks of
by a causeway
to the associated
Kingdom,
Middle
and Aswan. The
last
temple of Hatshepsut
pyramid temple. complexes
similar
constructed at private tombs
canals, being linked
at
Qaw
were
el-Kebir,
known example at
is
In the
also
Thebes
found
at
the
is
that
(Cairo 1941),discussedbyE.Drioton,in:ASA£40(1941) 1007-1014; Ricke,
Bemerkungen 86-114; Paule Posener-Krieger, Les
temple funeraire de Neferirkare-Kakai V.A.
Donohue,
Pr-nfr, in:
II
archives
du
(Cairo 1976) 549-563;
JEA 64 (1978) 143-148; Edwards, Pyramids
136-138; Stadelmann, Taltempel,
in:
Helck,
LA VI 189-193;
Arnold,
Temples 288-292.
Deir el-Bahari.
The earliest completely preserved valley temple
of Khafre. Those of Menkaure, Sahure, Niuserre, Unas,
Pepy
II,
Senwosret
II
and
Amenemhat
Dahshur
III at
have been excavated. There are numerous other valley
temples
the
in
which have not been
cultivation
investigated.
Valley temples were built at the edge of a canal terrace, with a
large boats,
the temple
monumental quay
and had chapels
on a
as a landing place for
founder of
for statues of the
and possibly cult places on the roof which were
accessible via stairs.
During the reign of Sneferu a new
type of pyramid complex was introduced from which was
removed the old elements connected with the between the king and the gods
interaction
(as represented in the
Djoser complex), which were displaced
may
Consequently, the valley temples
to the valley. in effect
have
continued the traditions of the divine fortresses and
funerary enclosures of the early dynasties. The Abusir papyri (5/6th Dynasty) and festival calendars record that Sokar, Hathor, the divine standards (in other words, the
old Followers of Horus)
pyramid complex with
and other gods
their barques,
and were probably
received at the valley temple by images representing the king.
The
survival of the concept of the contact between
the Horus king
and the
state
gods
is
also manifested in the
statue groups of the king with various gods valley temples of
Menkaure and
from the
which were
built
onwards opposite the pylon river, at
from the at
New Kingdom
the edge of the canal or
the point where the cult image awaited the arrival
of the barques of other deities. valley temples as
The old
embalming houses
is
Vault, see also ceiling construction, cupola Simple arches and vaults were developed soon after the introduction of brick construction (tomb 3500
Saqqara, reign of Qa'a). They were erected storage buildings
others.
Certain features of the valley temple continued in cult terraces,
Plan of the valley temple of Sahure at Abusir
visited the
interpretation of
no longer
tenable.
and
in
Ring or barrel
Orient, were used,
at
houses and
underground corridors of tombs
to roof over large gates, long
staircases.
in
narrow rooms, corridors and vaults,
formed of
used widely in the
layers of horizontal or
upright bricks which leant against a wall and could therefore be erected without a supporting
framework or
centring. In the case of larger vaults, ring vaults
may have
Vault
253
6.8
at Abydos were 39 m long and up to m wide, the vault constructed of bricks of dimensions
7.5
x 22 x 60 cm, the edges along their lower surface being
temple of Sety
I
trimmed. Particularly impressive are the vaults above the throne hall of Ramesses
III at
on the architraves, which
are supported
The
largest
m,
7.7
Medinet Habu,
resting
on columns.
span which can be proven to have existed
in the
is
mortuary temple of Amenhotep (son of
Hapu), and 8.6
m
Medinet Habu (18th
in the stables at
and 20th Dynasties). The
largest vaults, albeit not free-
standing, with a span of up to 12
m,
exist
above the
pressure-relieving slabs in the pyramids of the late 12th Brick vaults in the grain stores of the
and 13th Dynasties.
Ramesseum
Cross-vaults being
served
as
supporting
a
framework
during
construction of the actual overlying vault vertical bricks to
form
Old Kingdom
made
of
a barrel vault. Smaller cap vaults
and complicated arched in the
the
appear
belt structures started to
Giza, where the
body of the
two barrels had in
1992
at
to
unknown,
the junction between
be overlaid with beams. A vault found
Dahshur, the
earliest so far discovered in a
stone building, forms the ceiling of the burial chamber of a 4th
Dynasty mastaba, having a 2.62
m
span.
Some
vault
weight- relieving vaults have been found dating back to
consisted of rounded red painted ribs, in this case resting
the 4th Dynasty (also at Dahshur). Genuine vaults up to
on protruding ledges (bricks, moulded), which
2.80
at
give the
appearance of a roof of reed matting. Starting as early as the Old
and
slightly
m
wide,
made
of wedge-shaped voussoirs, which
date to around 760 BC, are found in the burial chapels of
Kingdom,
particularly thin
curved vaulting bricks were used in places,
the 'divine consorts' at Medinet at
Habu and
in
tomb
vaults
Giza ('Campbell's tomb'), Abusir (Wedjahorresnet)
with lengthwise grooves for improved adhesion of the
and Saqqara (Neferibre Sa-Neith, Wahibre-men, Hor).
mortar
The Per-weru and mortuary
(bricks,
moulded,
of non-inclined arches;
i.e.
Fig.).
Less frequent are vaults
they utilised layers of straight
bricks which were unable to be erected without centring, in
which case the hollow space below would presumably
have been
filled
by a single ring
with earth. Smaller vaults were formed in the barrel vault,
brick or small stones being used to gaps.
with broken pieces of fill
Examples of long barrel vaults
the wedge-shaped
exist in the
of the pyramid of Senwosret III (spanning 4.10
an apex height of 2.43 m) and of the
Ramesseum
in the
boat
m
pit
with
magazine buildings
(with a span of up to 3.70
m and an
apex height of 2.43 m). The destroyed magazines
Stone vaults in the tomb chapels of the 'divine consorts'
at
at the
Medinet Habu
offering halls of
pyramid
temples from the 5th Dynasty onwards had
ceilings
constructed of upright slabs, the underside of which was
carved out to give a curved appearance (5.25
6-7
m
m
span,
high). Corbelled vaults were also hollowed out
underneath to achieve a vaulted
effect (such as the
room
of the sanctuary of Hatshepsut's temple and the temple of Sety
I at
Abydos). From the 4th
the underside of relieving slabs largest true stone vaults
was
the Bridge of Fabricius at
Dynasty
also carved out.
The
m m in Greece and 24.5 m in
known
wide, as compared with 6.48
to the 12th
Rome.
in
Egypt are only 2.8
Vault
254
Bibliography: Choisy, L'art de bdtir 42-51; Jequier, Clark,
A£M 181-191; Junker, Giza V
l'architecture egyptienne, in:
Manuel 303-314;
La Revue du
Caire 27, No. 137 (1951)
14-20; A. Badawy, Brick vaults and domes in the Giza necropolis,
Abdel-Moneim Abu-Bakr, Excavations 1953) 129-143; G. Thorel,
in:
les
Le Ramesseum. Les annexes nord-ouest
plus anciens en Egypte et en
I'Academie Royale de Belgique 60 in:
Helck.LA
II
in:
1949-1950 (Cairo
at Giza,
(Centre for Documentation, Cairo 1976) 29-51;
arceaux
(
Grabbauten 78-79; M. Verner, La tombe d'Oudjahorresnet,
1978)
1
P.
Gilbert, Voutes et
Mesopotamia 16-127;
J.
in: Bull,
de
Brinks, Gewolbe,
589-594; Spencer, Brick Architecture 123-127; Eigner,
in:
BIFAO
89 (1989) 283-290; Arnold, Building 200-201; Nicholson, Materials
156-159; H. Fathy, La voute dans .
93-96. General:
P.J.
Neve, Hethitischer Gewolbebau, in: Bautechnik der
Antike (Mainz 1991) 161-165; griechischen Keilsteingewolbes,
B.
Wesenberg, Zur Entstehung des
in:
Bautechnik der Antike (Mainz
1991) 252-258; Klaus Dornisch, Die griechischen Bogentore. Zur
Entstehung und Verbreitung des griechisehen Keilsteingewolbes, Europaische Hochschulschriften (Frankfurt 1992) 225-228; Salah el-Naggat, Les (Cairo 1999).
voutes dans
I'
architecture de I'Egypte ancienne
w Wabet
Wadi el-Sebu'a
The Egyptian word wabet means 'the pure used, in later temples, of a small group of stairs
which lead
and
is
rooms near the
to the roof, consisting of
sun court behind which was latter is
(place)'
an unroofed
room. The
a raised cult
separated from the courtyard by a screen wall
with two columns. The wabet was used in festivities for celebrating the
with the sun disc.
Its
temples attached
union of the
New
cult
Year
images
forerunners were probably the sun
to
the
New Kingdom
millions of years'. Examples are found
Shanhur, El-Qal'a, Edfu,
'houses of at
Dendera,
F.
Daumas, Neujahr,
in:
Helck,
LA V 466-472.
small rock chapel of Amenhotep
south of Aswan. Ramesses
temple (109
m in
Re-Horakhty and,
way
length
)
from there richly
to the rock
varied
km
Amun-Re. A processional
on the
river
bank, through two
made of sandstone, and
sanctuary proper (hemispeos).
array of statues
(sphinxes, avenue
dedicated to Nile 165
nearby, dedicated to himself,
principally,
led from a platform
III
Bank of the
constructed a larger rock
II
brick pylons to the third pylon,
Kom Ombo and Kalabsha.
Bibliography: Maurice Alliot, Le culte d'Horus a Edfou (Cairo 1954)
309-374;
Site of a
the Nubian Horus, on the West
the
lines
A
approach
of).
Half of the pillared hall stood in the open
air,
while
the offering room, together with three cult image rooms,
were carved completely out of the rock. The execution
is
rough and provincial. In 1964 the temple was moved 4
km to the west. Bibliography: Gau, Antiquites, Plates 42-47; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire, Plate 48;
Henry
Gauthier, Le temple de Ouadi es'Seboud
(Cairo 1912); R. Gundlach, Sebua,
in:
Helck,
LA V 768-769;
Hein,
Ramessidische Bautatigkeit 17-20.
Plan of the temple of Ramesses
II
at
Wadi
el-Sebu'a
Wadi Miya (Kanais, Redesiah, Wadi Abbad) A well-preserved rock temple of Sety I at a watering place on the road to the gold mines in the Eastern Desert,
55
km
from Edfu.
It
is
dedicated to
Amun-Re and
Ennead. The hemispeos has a pronaos 8.46
m
his
wide,
with four columns and two rock-cut statues of the king
by the entrance. Within the rock
is
a four-pillared hall,
with two side-recesses and three chapels in the rear wall.
The
central chapel contains seated statues of Sety
Amun-Re and The wabet of the Hathor temple a frieze of uraei
at
Dendera, with Hathor columns and
Bibliography:
Miyah
I,
Re-Horakhty.
LD
Text IV 75-83; H. Gauthier, Le temple de l'Ouadi
(el-Knais), in:
BIFAO
17 (1920) 1-38;
S.
Schott,
Der Tempel
Wall
256 Sethos
I.
im Wadi Mia,
in:
Nachrichten
Akademie
d.
Wissenschaften
d.
Wavy From
Gottingen 6 (1961) 123-189.
wall,
pan bedding
the 13th Dynasty onwards the walls of houses, and
from the reign of Nectanebo
wavy
Wall, see also curved wall,
wall
I
onwards the enclosure
walls of temples, were constructed with undulating
a) Brick walls. In
Egyptian brick and stone structures,
courses of bricks. The walls were divided into sections
vertical walls are
found next to walls with a batter
with either concave or convex courses (pan bedding)
(approximately 83° slope, or 2-3 fingers per cubit) and
with a rounded stability,
The batter was not only
top.
m high were sloped. The
because walls only 1-2
was produced by
batter in brickwork
bottom upwards, headers with
improve
to
replacing,
which,
when viewed from
the
had
front,
wavy
a
appearance. The danger of bricks cracking was prevented
by
their being laid
dry (brick construction). The side
from the
pressure produced by this undulating construction
by
ensured that the bricks were kept in close bond. The
layers of stretchers or
laying the bricks at the necessary angle to produce a
interior strength of walls
herringbone bond. The inside or rear face of brick or
matting, inserted lengthwise or across the direction of
stone walls often has less of a slope or
may be
was increased by beams or reed
The lower sections of
the wall.
consisted
of undulating
example
Armant, Kalabsha, Philae,
crenellations
and
a half
on
top.
The height of the wall
and three times
its
between two
is
and outer walls made of
stone were also battered. Their inner surface, however,
was always
vertical.
irregular profile.
made c)
of
The upper edge had
rounded or
a
The core of the wall was often
rough stones and the
like,
with
filled
and only the outer casing was
smoothed blocks joined together by
was often
built of
sandstone, the upper part of brick (Armant, Philae, Kalabsha). The corners of brick walls
at this
period were
often reinforced with stones (Luxor, El-Tod, Edfu). Bibliography:
Jequier,
effect of
bonded quoining. The outer casing of
sometimes consisted of interpretation
of the 'wave'
could be
effect
walls
A secondary
bricks.
fired
representation of the primeval ocean. In the
without any technical need (such as
Kalabsha). At Taposiris
as
a
Roman
at
Dendera, Philae,
Magna 'waves' were
Bibliography: Choisy, L'art de batir 21-42; Clark, G. Haeny, A short architectural history of Philae,
Manuel 77-109; Holscher, Chefren
554;
painted on
to a horizontal course of stone.
A.l; J.-C. Golvin et
al.,
in:
AEM
210-211;
JEA 85 ( 1985) 215
Essay d'explication des murs
'a
assis courbes',
Comptes vendues de I'Academie des Inscriptions 58 (1990) 905-946;
in:
70-75.
Nicholson, Materials 91.
pillar,
laid so
that they sloped towards the inside, thus increasing the
Borchardt, Sahu-Re 68; Borchardl, Ne-user-Re 97; Eigner, Grabbauten
Wall
(for
Taffa). Corners
period wavy walls were sometimes imitated in stone
pegs.
Large enclosure walls. In the Graeco-Roman period
the lower portion of enclosure walls
a
sandstone masonry
were strengthened by the courses of bricks being
thickness.
b) Stone walls. Free-standing
at
sometimes
wall
vertical.
Brick structures are often depicted with rounded
see pilaster
Water spout, see a/so drainage, roof drainage The pyramid temples of the Old and Middle Kingdoms were provided with water spouts
to provide drainage,
consisting of long stone gutters, with a U-shaped crosssection,
open
at the top.
From
the reign of Niuserre
onwards, the gutter fed out between the paws (rather than the mouth) of the front parts of lions (pyramid and
sun temple of Niuserre, pyramid temple of Senwosret
I,
Undulating enclosure wall of the
Chapelle Blanche, Medinet Habu, Khonsu temple). In laid
Amun
precinct at Karnak, in parts
dry
Ptolemaic temples these water spouts rested on huge corbels with apotropaic inscriptions for the protection of the
opening
and representations
in the wall of the
temple
Way
station, see
barque station
(Edfu, Dendera). Bibliography: Jequier,
Manuel 55-56; H. Chevrier,
137: Arnold, Wasserspeier, in:
Sauneron and Henri
Stierlin,
Helck,
in:
ASAE 29
(
1929)
LA VI 1155-1156; Serge
Die letzten Tempel Agyptens (Zurich
1978) 52, 55; Zivie, Deir Chelouit, Plate 41-42.
Wedjahorresnet, tomb of A monumental shaft tomb of
the end of the 26th
Dynasty, south-west of the pyramids
main
shaft,
23
at
Abusir. The
m deep, with the sarcophagus chamber at
Window communicates
the bottom,
shafts surrounding
it
on
257
directly with the secondary
all sides;
the latter were filled
with sand in order to hinder tomb robbers. Other Late Period tombs in the area have not been examined. Bibliography: Miroslav Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids,
Abusir (Prague 1994) 195-208.
Wheeled transport, see a/so transport The use of wheels
and hunting
for military
chariots,
and
and
cult
carriages for the transport of funerary barques
images
is
documented from the Hyksos period
well
(1630-1520 BC) onwards. Vehicles with four wheels appear from the 18th Dynasty onwards. Less well
known
the existence of sturdy transport carriages (drawn by
is
up
to
New Kingdom. (Much
12 oxen) in the
forerunners are
Kingdom and
shown
in
tomb paintings of
earlier
the late Old
the 11th Dynasty showing siege towers
with wheels; depictions of movable siege towers exist
Sandstone window
from the 6th Dynasty onwards.) This indicates that the
Ramesses
III at
grille
room of
from the
the palace of
Medinet Habu
wheel was used in the transport of heavy loads more frequently than
is
generally assumed. Transport of stone
(such as granite columns weighing 48 tonnes for the
Pantheon
in
Rome) from Mons Claudianus and
Porphyrites to the Nile valley, carried out using wheeled vehicles in the in
Roman
may have had
period,
forerunners
Pharaonic times.
may
have been
surface of the desert sand
J.J.
in building is
fairly
and the
may have been a serious obstacle not so much for sledges. Bibliography:
ending
if
inside,
and the
soft
mud of the cultivation for
heavy carriages but
The opening
on the outside by a surrounding
is
brick buildings. The
grilles in the
vertical slits are
earliest
found
examples with
shape of djed pillars are found in the Djoser
precinct, while
monumental ones
found in the hypostyle hall high, per
protected against rain
ledge. Stone grilles in the
form of lavish ornaments or simple
at
(so-called claustra') are
Karnak (8-12
window; ceiling construction,
slits,
Fig.)
5.20
and
m
in the
III at Medinet Habu. Some windows Dendera and Deir el-Medina have stone grilles in the
palace of Ramesses
NY
1977)
at
Vom Pentelizum Parthenon (Munich
1992)
form of small temple facades or
Coulton, Greek Architects at Work (Ithaca,
141-144; Manolis Korres,
not yet
common. The
arc obliquely,
wall of the structure.
in stone or
The use of wheeled equipment attested to but
widen towards the
possible at an angle between the ceiling
which usually
in
Ancient
windows
play a
32-38; Arnold, Building 281-282; R. Partridge, Transport
in the shape of ranges of
columns with Hathor capitals.
Egypt (London 1996).
Window Despite the climatic conditions of Egypt,
major
role
in
Egyptian architecture. Larger window
apertures have vertical or horizontal grilles or
window
shutters. Varieties of
branch
to vertical bars or
grille
wooden
range from a simple
carved ornaments (attested to
by finds and from representations). The masonry of brick
mastabas of the Old Kingdom slots or clusters of drill holes. lintels
are kept apart
also has vertical
Window
by a number of
Window
lintels are often
masonry
or the roof.
apertures for admitting light
The
slots
window
and window
vertical bars.
simply boards supporting the
Temple buildings of stone tend
temples, Figs).
sills
to have interesting
(Mentuhotep and Opet
(so-called
'windows of
Shu'),
Window at
grilles
of the Ptolemaic extension to the 18th Dynasty temple
Medinet Habu
258
'Window
i
of appearances'
S
fs^n'
s
E Egyptian windows. A: window from the palace of Ramesses of Ramesses
III at
Medinet Habu; D:
Special forms of
cellar
window
III at
Medinet Habu; B-C: window construction and window
window from Roman house
are found above door
openings, often of richly ornamented
wooden
lattice
II
201 at
shade. Severe
damage
archaeologically. In
supra-portals above false doors in temples and tombs
years', the
(Puyemre). In
cultic
structures,
slits
or drill holes
suffered by the palaces has so far
Theban 'houses of millions of
'window of appearances' gives out from the
it.
A
staircase,
on the palace
magnificent window, which
Dynasty Temple at Deir el-Bahari (London 1910) Plates 14-19;
emblems on
Manuel 129-135;
34; Boak, Karanis
I
Clark,
170-177; Junker, Giza
III, Fig.
— II; Junker, Soknopaiou Nesos (Ann Arbor 1935);
G. Haeny, Fenster, in: Helck,
Schu,in:Helck,IA
AEM
II
LA
II
168-169;
P.
Kaplony, Fenster des
169-170.
temple lying in front
cult palace into the forecourt of the
of
Bibliography: Perrot, L'Egypte 614-621; Edouard Naville, The Xlth
Jequier,
is
the side of the court.
king
'shines', 'so as to
make
(1925)
R.
or
presented
gifts.
The
upholstered balustrades and a
balconies
had
canopy providing
probably had a
Amun-Re appear
The place of audience
Erscheinungsbalkon im kbniglichen Palast,
subjects
a
in the palace, in:
50-56; U. Hblscher, Erscheinungsfenster und
'Window of appearances'
appearances', where the king showed himself to his
It
his father
Depictions in private tombs of the 18th Dynasty show (or balconies) of
to
at his valley festival'. Bibliography: N. de G. Davies,
had 'windows
side, leads
decorated with royal
purely cultic function, as the 'heavens' from which the
ZAS 60
that royal residences
from the east gate
prevented the existence of this feature being proved
work; highly detailed imitations in stone are found as
provide a link between the serdab and the offering room.
grilles
Dima
in:
ZAS 67
(1939) 43-51;
Stadelmann, Tempelpalast und Erscheinungsfenster,
architectural 29
appearance
at
(1973) 221-242;
El-Amarna,
Erscheinungsfenster,
renewal
at
in:
in:
Helck,
B.J.
JEA 62 (1976) 81-99;
LA
II
14; B.J.
Amarna, Egyptian Archaeology
in:
Dessin
Kemp, The window of
1
D. Arnold,
Kemp, Discovery and
(1991) 19-22.
Woven timber
construction, reed buildings
259
Woven timber A
pre-historic
prior
to
the
construction, reed buildings method of making fragile structures
erection
of buildings
of brick and
stone but which continued (and continue) to be used alongside the latter in the provision of temporary
accommodation, animal roofs
(examples
at
shelters,
Hammamiya, El-Ma' adi and
El-Tarif ).
of native species of timber and
reeds and papyrus mats, in i.e.
'wattle
arbours and protective
Merimde-Benisalame, El-Omari, Frames were
built
palm stems, and clothed in
some cases covered with mud,
and daub' covering. Representations
in
hieroglyphs dating from the 1st Dynasty (on cylinder seals) indicate the presence at that
time of monumental
examples used as residences of chiefs or kings (Per-nu, Per-wer). Forms developed on such prototypes were used in stone structures
from the time of Djoser onwards.
This type of 'palace of mats' tiled decorations lining the
is
Modern hut made
of palm stems and sugar cane
represented in the
Main and South Tombs
of
Bibliography: I.E.S. Edwards,
Djoser. Individual architectural elements, such as the
Egyptian architecture,
drum, cavetto cornice and frieze, rounded beam ceiling,
Bemerkungen
plant
columns, have
buildings.
torus moulding, kheker as well as
their origin
in
some forms
of
woven timber
in:
Some
MDAIK
La premiere architecture en Egypte, I
early dynastic contributions to
35 (1949) 123-128; A. Badawy, in:
ASAE
51 (1951) 1-23; Ricke,
25-38; K. Kuhlmann, Rohrbau,
in:
Helck,
LA V
288-294; Labelle Prussin, African Nomadic Architecture (Washington-
London
1995).
z Zawyet el-Aryan
corridors in a U-shaped arrangement, with a total of 32
Remains of two
magazines.
tombs south of Giza, both inadequately examined and now built over with a royal
military camp. a)
An
m in size, constructed in 14 m below the centre is the burial
ascription to King
monumentale 206-211;
Histoire
incomplete 3rd Dynasty step mastaba, erected
Its
Stadelmann, Saujet el-Arjan,
in:
500 and the layer pyramid of Zawiyet
courses of masonry. 24
507-522.
east,
is
hypothetical.
MRA
Stadelmann,
Helck, LA
on the desert plateau, 84
chamber, surrounded on the
Khaba
Bibliography: Reisner, Development 151-153;
II
41-49, Lauer,
Pyramiden
77;
V 495-497; Mark Lehner, Z
el- Aryan, in:
Studies Simpson
II,
north and west sides bv b)
An abandoned
4th Dynasty pyramid building project
in the fore-desert, ascribed to the kings following Djedefre
(Baka/Nebka, Hordjedef or Bauefre). The completed parts
were an open
shaft, 21
burial chamber,
m
deep, for construction of the
and the building ramp sloping down
two steps from the north. At the bottom of the shaft
in
is
a
deep stone foundation with an unused oval granite sarcophagus, around which the chamber was to have been constructed.
The pyramid was planned
to
measure 210 x
210 m, with a precinct of 420 x 465 m. Bibliography: A. Barsanti, Ouverture de la pyramide de Zaouiet
el-Aryan,
ASAE
in:
ASAE 2
( 1
90 1 ) 92-94; A. Barsanti, Zaouiet el-Aryan,
in:
7 (1906) 226-281; J.-Ph. Lauer, Sur l'age et l'attribution
possible de l'excavation
14 (1962) 21-36;
monumentale de Zaouiet el-Aryan,
MRA VI
in:
RdE
16-29; Stadelmann, Pyramiden 140-141.
Zawyet el-Mayitin (Zawyet el-Amwat, Zawyet Sultan The important remains of a city, 7 km upstream
of
el-Minya, with an enormous necropolis dating from pre-
dynastic to Ptolemaic times, containing numerous rock
tombs area
of the Old and
is
a
small step
New Kingdoms. mastaba of
In the northern
the 3rd Dynasty,
constructed in four steps, measuring 22.5 x 22.5 m, and originally approximately
17
m
high. There are
some
remains of its casing. No burial chamber has been found. Bibliography: R. Weill, Fouilles a Tounah et a Zaouiet el-Maietin,
CRAIBL
Dreyer and Kaiser, Stufenpyramiden 48-49; Plan and section of the step mastaba at Zawyet el-Aryan (after J.-P. Lauer)
in:
(1912) 484-490; Lauer, Histoire monumentale 225-227;
Nefersecheru in Zawyet Sultan (Mainz 1992).
J.
Osing, Das Grab des
Maps
Taposiris
Magna
beumfr
• Sebennytos*'
Naukratis Kpm Finn •
^Hermopolis ParvV
M,k«.,k, •Nabesha 5
1
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2
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3
Tuqh el-Qaramus
4Avarirf 5 Ezbet Rushdi
KomAbu
Billo*
6 Qantir
Letopolis
Giza» Abusirc S» Memphis Saqqarair
Dahshur* S
i
wa
Qasr el-Sagha
Qasr Qarun*
'--' Biahmu Medinet el-Faiyunw Meidum
Sinai
Medinet Madi # Abgig Ehnasya el-Medina
Bahariya Oasis
El-Muftella^, ysra El-Megysba
Beni Hasan Speos Artemidos Hermopolis ^\» Antinopohs
Tunael-Gebel
'•El-Bersha
Vr. Salamuni
Akhmim {^9 Wannina
Maps
263
y-iKoptos
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Am Amur •
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^Nadurt
El-Kharga
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f
•
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Abu
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r^aravXAbahuda
Aksha«^ erra Eas t Buhen^vVadi Haifa MirgissaJ-2nd Cataract
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Amara
Elephantine),^,^
Upper Nubia
Philae
Wes W3rd Cataract * ai VAmara East , Sedmga^Gebe| Dosha .
-L^El _j
Soleb
=— r
Qertassi Taffa
Kalabsha"? &_Beit
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p;Dendur
Lower
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Dakka^^= Qurtajf
-
Maharraqa -(|F
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-
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Abu Simbel. Faras.-=
Aksna ^*rSerraEast
200
100
km
300
Glossary
Ba: Aspect of the individual similar
to personality.
frequently represented as a bird with the head
of a
It
was
human.
Canopic
Gebel: Mountain,
hill (Ar.).
and arms Intercolumnium: Space between two
Containers for the viscera separated
(jars):
from the corpse during mummification. Ideally they took the form of four alabaster jars with
human and animal
heads, placed in a sarcophagus-like stone box.
Ka: Highly important aspect of the individual,
and humans, but very grasp.
is
It
and
dignity
associated with, life
Cartouche: In hieroglyphs, an enclosure containing the
name
from the shen
originally derived
rope,
which was
extended from a the kings
of the ruler.
a
It
ring, a
force of a person.
Born as
circle to
knotted
ship's
Kom: As
an oval shape
to
accommodate
is
at
tell
(below), a
Serf-festival:
dramas,
layers of rock
cataract
It
a
form of
was represented
mound
of ruins (Ar.).
symbol of eternity and which was
Cataract: Rapids on the upper part of the Nile, formed
third at
gods
by two bent arms reaching upwards with open hands.
Ideally
first
for
modern thinking to among other things, the
was perhaps
name.
from hard
columns.
difficult for
double, the ka survived bodily death.
throne or birth
pillars or
which hindered
Aswan, the second
at
river traffic.
Wadi
Festival, incorporating elaborate
for the renewal of the ruling
it
power of the
ritual
king.
took place 30 years after his accession or his
designation as next in line to the throne.
The
Haifa, the
Tell:
As kom (above),
a
mound
of ruins (Ar.).
Kerma, and the fourth upstream from Gebel Triad: Group of three gods - usually a divine family -
Barkal.
worshipped
Ennead: Group of nine
(three times three,
'many') divinities at principal cult centres, for example Heliopolis.
at a cult centre.
meaning Wadi: Dry desert valley
(Ar.).
Chronological Table Egyptian chronology was for
and 12th Dynasties,
many years
as well as of the
considered 'secure'. More recently, the chronological foundations of the 1st
whole Second Intermediate Period, have been called
has been cast on the length of the Third Intermediate Period.
Late Pre-historic Period (Naqada 1Mb, protodynastic)
3200-3100
Dynasty
3200-3100 Ni-Hor
Hat-Hor Iri-Hor
Ka/Sekhen
Horus Narmer Scorpion
Early Dynastic Period (Thinite period) 1st
Dynasty
3100-2600 3100-2885 Horus Aha (Menes) Athothis
I
Horus Djer Meryneith
Horus Wadj(Djet)
Horus Dewen (Den, Udimu) Horus Adjib Horus Semerkhet Horus Qa'a
2nd Dynasty
2885-2700 Horus Hetepsekhemwy (Netjenbau) Horus Raneb (Nebre, Kau?) Horus Ninetjer Seth Peribsen (Sekhemib?)
Horus-Seth Khasekhem(wy)
and perhaps other ephemeral
3rd Dynasty
rulers
2700-2600 Horus Zanakht (Nebka) Horus Netjerykhet (Djoser) Horus Sekhemkhet (Djoserti) Nebkare(?) Khaba(?)
Horus Kahedjet (Huni?)
and perhaps other ephemeral
rulers
into question,
and doubt
Chronological Table
266
Old Kingdom
2600-2137
4th Dynasty
2600-2450 Sneferu
2600-2555
Khufu (Cheops)
2555-2520
Djedefre (Radjedef)
2520-2512
Khafre (Chephren)
2512-2477
Baka(?)
2477-2472
Menkaure (Mykerinos)
2472-2454
Shepseskaf
2454-2450
and perhaps other ephemeral 5th Dynasty
rulers
2450-2325 Userkaf
Sahure Neferirkare-Kakai
Shepseskare Neferefre-Isi (Raneferef)
Niuserre-Ini
Menkauhor Djedkare-Isesi
Unas
2325-2137
6th Dynasty
Teti
Pepi
I
Merire
Merenre Pepi
II
Neferkare
and three ephemeral First
Intermediate Period
7— 8th Dynasties
2137-2040 2150-2134
numerous ephemeral 9- 10th Dynasties (in Herakleopolis)
rulers
rulers
2134-2040 local rulers
1
1th
Dynasty before the Unification (2040)
2134-2040 local rulers in Thebes, the last of
which
were Inyotef I — III and Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
Middle Kingdom 1
lth
Dynasty
after the Unification (2040)
2040-1650 2040-1991
Mentuhotep Nebhepetre
Mentuhotep Sankhkare Mentuhotep Nebtawyre 12th Dynasty
1991-1783
Amenemhat Senwosret
I
I
Sehetepibre
Kheperkare
Amenemhat
II
Nubkaure
1991-1962
1971-1926 1929-1892
Chronological Table
13th Dynasty
II
Senwosret
III
1844-1797
Sobeknofru (Nofru-Sobek)
1787-1783
1799-1787
1783-1650 partly in
14th Dynasty
1878-1841
Khakaure
Amenemhat III Nimaatre Amenemhat IV Maatkherure
numerous mostly ephemeral
Second Intermediate Period
1897-1878
Khakheperre
Senwosret
rulers,
Memphis
1650-1550 1710-1650
numerous ephemeral
rulers in the Delta,
contemporary with the 13th and 15th Dynasties
15th Dynasty
'Great'
1650-1550
Hyksos rulers
Salitis
Sheshi
Iaqobher
Khyan Apophis
Khamudi 16th Dynasty
1650-1550 numerous ephemeral Hyksos their
17th Dynasty
rulers
and
Lower Egyptian vassals
1650-1550 approximately 15 Theban rulers
contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties, the last of which were
Seqenenre Ta'o und Kamose
New Kingdom 18th Dynasty
1550-1070 1550-1308 1550-1525
Ahmose Amenhotep
I
1525-1504
Thutmosis
I
1504-1492
Thutmosis
II
1492-1479
Thutmosis
III
1479-1425 1473-1458
Hatshepsut
Amenhotep
II
1427-1401
Thutmosis IV
1401-1391
Amenhotep III Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten
1364-1348
Tutankhamun
1348-1338
Ay Horemheb
1338-1335
1391-1353
1335-1308
267
I
268
Chronological Table
19th Dynasty
1307-1196
Ramesses
1307-1306
I
Setyl
1306-1290
Ramesses
20th Dynasty
1290-1224
II
Merenptah
1224-1214
Setyll
1214-1204
Siptah
1204-1198
Tawosret
1198-1196
1196-1070 Sethnakht
1196-1194
Ramesses
III
1194-1163
Ramesses IV
1163-1156
Ramesses V
1156-1151
Ramesses VI
1151-1143
Ramesses VII
1143-1136
Ramesses VIII
1136-1131 /
Ramesses IX
X
Ramesses
1112-1100
Ramesses XI
Third Intermediate Period 21st Dynasty (in Tanis)
1131-1112
1100-1070
1070-712 1069-945
Smendes
1069-1043
Psusennes
1039-991
Amenemope
993-984
Siamun
978-959
Psusennes
959-945
II
further ephemeral rulers in Tanis, the
same time
and
at
eight high priests of Amun
ruling from Thebes
22nd Dynasty
(in Bubastis)
945-715 Sheshonq Osorkon
Sheshonq
924- 889 c.890
II
Takeloth
I
889-874
Osorkon
II
874-850
Takeloth
II
850-825
Sheshonq
23rd Dynasty (in Leontopolis)
945-924
I
I
825-773
III
Pimai
773-767
Sheshonq V
767-730
Osorkon IV
730-715
820-718 approximately seven rulers contemporary with the 22nd, 24th
and 25th Dynasties
Chronological Table
24th Dynasty (in Sais)
269
730-712 ephemeral; two rulers, Tefnakht and Bakenrenef, contemporary with the 23rd
and 25th dynasties
Late Period 25th Dynasty (Ethiopian)
26th Dynasty
760-656 Kashta
760-747
Piankhi
747-716
Shabaka
716-702
Shebitku
702-690
Taharqa
690-664
Tantamani
664-656
664-525 Psamtek
Necho
664-610
I
610-595
II
Psamtek
595-589
II
589-570
Apries
570-526
Amasis Psamtek
27th Dynasty (First Persian Period)
525-404
28-29th Dynasty
404-380
526-525
III
ephemeral Egyptian rulers
30th Dynasty
in
380-343 Nectanebo
Nakhtnebef
I
Nectanebo
II
Nakhtherhebef
359/358-342/341
342-332
31st Dynasty (Second Persian Period)
Ptolemaic Dynasty
379/380-361/360
361/360-359/358
Teos
Macedonian Dynasty
Mendes
332-310 Alexander the Great
332-323
Philip Arrhidaeus
323-317
Alexander
316-305
II
304-30 Ptolemy
I
Ptolemy
II
Ptolemy
III
304-285
Soter
284-247
Philadelphus Euergetes
246-222
I
Ptolemy IV Philopator
221-205
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
205-180
Ptolemy VI Philometor
180-145
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
145
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
164-163,145-116
Cleopatra
Ptolemy
116-101
III
Ptolemy IX Soter
II
II
X Alexander I
116-107,88-80 101-88
270
Chronological Table
Ptolemy XI Alexander
80
II
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos (Auletes)
80-51
Cleopatra VII Philopator with
Ptolemy
Roman
XIII,
30 BC to
rule
(Roman and Western Roman emperors appearing on Egyptian monuments)
XIV and XV
AD
642 14-37
Gaius (Caligula)
37-41
Claudius
41-54
Nero
54-68
Galba
68-69
Otho
69
Vespasian
69-79
AD 642 the Byzantine Emperor surrendered Egypt to the Arabs
to
Titus
79-81
Domitian
81-96
Nerva
96-98
Trajan
98-117
Hadrian
117-138
Antoninus Pius
138-161
Lucius Verus
161-169
Marcus Aurelius
161-180
Commodus
180-192
Septimus Severus
193-211
Caracalla
198-217
Geta
209-212
Decius
II
BC
30
Tiberius
Marcus
Constantine
51-30
Augustus
Macrinus
In September,
(Caesarion)
Julius Philippus
217-218 244-249 249-251
AD
14
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Books
(titles
Arnold,
Amenemhet III: Dieter Arnold, Der Pyramidenbezirk
abbreviated
in
text indicated in bold)
Arnold, Building: Dieter Arnold, Building
in Egypt.
des Konigs
Amenemhet III.
in
Dahschur (Mainz 1987)
Pharaonic Stone Masonry (New York 1991
Arnold, Temples: Dieter Arnold, Temples of the Last Pharaohs (New York 1999) Arnold, Wandrelief: Dieter Arnold, Wandrelief und Raumfunktion in agyptischen Tempeln des Neuen Reiches (Berlin 1962)
Dieter Arnold, Die Tempel Agyptens. Gdtterwohnungen, Kultstdtten,
Aufrere, L'Egypte restituee:
S.
Aufrere,
J.-Cl.
Golvin and
J.-Cl.
Baudenkmaler (Zurich 1992)
Goyon, L'Egypte
restituee. Sites et
temples de Haute
Egypte (Paris 1991) Olivier Aurenche, Dictionnaire illustre'e multilingue de Tarchitecture
Badawy, Architecture: Alexander Badawy, A History of Egyptian
du proche orient ancien (Lyons-Paris 1977)
Architecture, 3 Vols (Berkeley-Los Angeles 1954,
1966, 1968)
Badawy, Dessin architectural: Alexandre Badawy, Le
dessin architectural chez les anciens egyptiens (Cairo 1948)
Earl Baldwin Smith, Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression
NY
(New York
1938, reprinted Watkins Glen,
1968)
Barta, Abusir 2000: M. Barta and
J.
Krejci, Eds,
Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000 (Prague 2000)
Haus und Palast: see Howe and Palace in B) Bietak, House and Palace: M. Bietak, House and Palace Bietak,
Boak, Karanis H: Arthur E.R. Boak,
Ed., Karanis,
in
Ancient Egypt (Vienna 1996)
The Temples, Coin Hoards, Botanical and Zoological Reports,
Seasons 1924-31 (Ann Arbor 1933)
Boak, Karanis
I:
Arthur E.R. Boak and Enoch Peterson, Karanis. Topographical and Architectural Report of
Excavations during the Seasons 1924-28 (Ann Arbor 1931)
Borchardt,
Tell
el-Amarna: Ludwig Borchardt and Herbert Rkke,Die Wohnhauser
in Tell
el-Amarna (Berlin 1980)
Borchardt, Chephren: Ludwig Borchardt, Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Chephren (Leipzig 1912) Borchardt, Entstehung der Pvramide: Ludwig Borchardt, Die Entstehung der Pyramide an der Baugeschichte der
Pyramide von Mejdum nachgewiesen (Berlin 1928) Borchardt, Nefer-ir- ke- Re: Ludwig Borchardt, Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Nefer-ir-ke-Re (Leipzig 1909) Borchardt, Ne- user- Re: Ludwig Borchardt, Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Ne-user-Re (Leipzig 1907) Borchardt, Pflanzensdule: Ludwig Borchardt, Die agyptischen Pflanzensaule (Berlin 1897) Borchardt, Re-Heiligtum: Ludwig Borchardt, Das Re-Heiligtum des Konigs Ne-woser-Re (Rathures) (Berlin 1905) Borchardt, Sahu-Re: Ludwig Borchardt, Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Sahu-Re (Leipzig 1910) Borchardt, Tempel mit Umgang: Ludwig Borchardt, Agyptische Tempel mit Umgang (Cairo 1938) Brinks, Grabanlagen: lurgen Brinks, Die Entwicklung der koniglichen Grabanlagen des Alten Reiches, Hildesheimer Agyptologische Beitrage 10 (Hildesheim 1979) Clark, A£M:_Somers Clark and R. Engelbach, Ancient Egyptian Masonry. The Building Craft (London 1930)
Choisy, Hart de bdtir: Auguste Choisy, L'art de bdtir chez
les
egyptiens (Paris 1904, reprinted Sala Bolognese 1977)
Jean-Louis de Cenival, Henri Stierlin and Marcel Breuer, Agypten. DasZeitalter der Pharaonen (Lausanne n.d.)
De Morgan, Dahchour I-II: Jacques
de Morgan, Fouilles a Dahchour mars-juin 1894 (Vienna 1895); Fouilles a
Dahchouren 1894-95 (Vienna 1903)
De
Putter, Pierres: Thierry de Putter 'architecture
and Christina Karishausen, Les pierres
de I'Egypte pharaonique (Brussels 1992)
utilisees
dans
la
sculpture et
I
)
272
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Description: Description de TEgypte, contenant plusieurs remarques curieuses sur
de ce
Monuments
Pais, sur ses
Diodoros, Diodori: Diodoros of
anciens,
Sicily,
etc.,
Geographic ancienne
la
et
moderne
10 Vols (Paris 1809-1828)
the Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge,
MA
1995)
Dreyer, Stufenpyramiden: G. Dreyer and W. Kaiser, Zu den kleinen Stufenpyramiden Ober- und Mittelagyptens.
MDAIK36
in:
(1980) 43-59
Edwards, Pyramids:
I.E.S.
Edwards, The Pyramids of Egypt (London reprinted 1985)
Eigner, Grabbauten: Diethelm Eigner, Die monumentalen Grabbauten der Spatzeit in der thebanischen Nekropole
(Vienna 1984)
Engelbach, Obelisks: Reginald Engelbach, The Aswan Obelisk (Cairo 1922) Festschrift Ricke: Aufsatze
zum
70.
Geburtstag von Herbert Ricke, BeitrageBf 12 (Wiesbaden 1971
Gau, Antiquites: Francois Chretien Gau, Antiquite's de
Nubie (Stuttgart-Paris 1822)
la
The Eternal Present. The Beginnings of Architecture, 2 Vols (London 1957) Golvin, Karnak: Jean-Claude Golvin and Jean-Claude Goyon, Les bdtisseurs de Karnak (Paris 1987) Haeny, Basilikale Anlagen: Gerhard Haeny, Basilikale Anlagen in der dgyptischen Baukunst des Neuen Reiches Siegfried Giedion,
(Wiesbaden 1970) Hassan, Giza, I-X: Selim Hassan, Excavations at Giza, 10 Vols (Cairo 1932-1960) Heck, LA: Wolfang Helck and Eberhard
Otto, Eds, Lexikon der Agyptologie, 6 Vols,
(Wiesbaden 1975-1986)
Hein, Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit: Irmgard Hein, Die Ramessidische Bautdtigkeit
in
Nubien\ Gbttinger
Orientforschungen 22 (Wiesbaden 1991)
Herodotus, History: Herodotus, History (The Loeb
Classical Library,
Cambridge,
MA
1996)
Hblscher, Chephren: Uvo Hblscher, Das Grabdenkmal des Kbnigs Chephren (Leipzig 1912) Hblscher, Medinet Habu, I-IV: Uvo Hblscher, The Excavations ofMedinet Habu, Vols of Ramses III,?m 1-2 (Chicago 1941, 1951); Vol.
I
and Ul,The Mortuary Temple
The Temples of the Eighteenth Dynasty (Chicago 1939); Vol. V,
II,
The Post-Ramesside Remains (Chicago 1954) Janosi, Pyramidenanlagen: Peter Janosi, Die Pyramidenanlagen der Koniginnen des Alten
und Mittleren
Reiches,
Dissertation (Vienna 1988) Jaritz, Terrassen: Horst Jaritz,
Die Terrassen vor den Tempeln des
Chnum und der Satet, Elephantine Vol. 3 (Mainz
1980)
Jequier, Architecture: Gustave Jequier, L'architecture et la decoration dans Tancienne Egypte, 3 Vols (Paris 1911, 1920, 1924)
Jequier,
Manuel: Gustave
Junker, Giza, I-XII:
Karnak I-IX; 1971; V =
Klemm,
Jequier,
Hermann
Manuel d'archeologie
Cahiers de Karnak, 8 Vols, Cairo, 1975; VI =
1980; VII
Steine: Rosemarie
egyptienne. Les elements de l'architecture (Paris 1924)
Junker, Giza, 12 Vols (Vienna 1929-1955)
=
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and Dietrich
D.
=
I
1987;
Klemm,
= Kemi 18, IX = 1993.
Steine
1968;
II
=
19, 1969; III
=
und Steinbruche im Alten Agypten
20, 1970;
IV
=
21,
(Berlin etc .1993)
Koenigsberger, Tur: Otto Koenigsberger, Die Konstruktion der dgyptischen Tiir ( Agyptolog. Forschungen 2 (Gluckstadt 1936)
Lauer, Histoire monumentale: Jean-Philippe Lauer, Histoire monumentale des pyramides d'Egypte (Cairo 1962) Lauer, Mystere: Jean-Philippe Lauer, Le mystere des pyramides (Paris 1974) Lauer, Saqqara: Jean-Philippe Lauer, Saqqara. The Royal Cemetery of Memphis (London 1976) Lepsius, Denkmaeler: Carl Richard Lepsius, Denkmaeler aus Aegypten and Aethiopien,V\ Parts in 12 Vols (Berlin 1849-1859)
Lehner, Complete Pyramids: Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids (London 1997) Lucas, AEMI: A. Lucas and
J.R. Harris,
Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Ed. (London 1962)
Maragioglio, L'architecttura II- VIII: Vito Maragioglio and Celeste Ambrogio Rinaldi, L'architettura menfite, 7 text
and 6
plate vols (Rapallo
della piramidi
1963-1977)
Muller, Monumentalarchitektur: Hans Wolfgang Miiller, Gedanken zur Entstehung, Interpretation und
Rekonstruktion altester agyptischer Monumentalarchitektur,
in:
Agypten - Dauer und Wandel (Mainz 1985) 7-33
Naville, Festival-Hall: Edouard Naville, The Festival-Hall ofOsorkon
II.
in the Great
Temple ofBubastis (1887-1889)
(London 1892) Nicholson, Materials: Paul Nicholson and Ian Shaw 2000)
et ah,
Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Cambridge
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Perrot, L'Egypte: Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Peet, City J.D.S.
ofAkhenaten
I-III: T.E. Peet
Pendlebury, The City ofAkhenaten
plate vols
C.L. Woolley, II
I'art
dans
I'antiquite, Vol.
The City ofAkhenaten
(London 1933);
J.D.S.
I
L'Egypte (Paris 1882)
I.
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Pendlebury, The City ofAkhenaten
and
text
III:
(London 1951)
Pyramids: William M. Flinders
Petrie,
and
273
Pliny, Naturalis Historia: C. Plinius
Petrie,
The Pyramids and Temples ofGizeh (London 1883)
Secundus the Elder (23/24 BC
to
AD
79), Naturalis Historia, Joyce Irene Whalley,
(London 1982) Porter, Bibliography I-VII: Bertha Porter
Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs,
and Rosalind Moss, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian
and Paintings, 7 Vols, some 2nd Eds by Jaromir Malek (Oxford 1927-1981
Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire: Emile Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de
I'art
egyptien d'apres
monuments, Atlas
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Vol.
1.
Architecture (Paris 1878)
Quirke, Temple: Stephen Quirke, The Temple Reisner, Giza: George
Andrew
Reisner,
A
in
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History of the Giza Necropolis I (Cambridge, Mass. 1942)
Reisner, Development: George A. Reisner, The Development of the Egyptian Tomb
down
to the
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(Cambridge 1963) Ricke,
Bemerkungen
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II
I-II: Herbert Ricke,
Bemerkungen zur agyptischen Baukunst des Alten
Reiches, Vol.
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(Zurich
(Cairo 1950)
Ricke, Harmachistempel: Herbert Ricke and Sigfried Schott, Der Harmachistempel des Chefren
in Giseh,
BeitrageBf
10 (Wiesbaden 1970)
Ricke, Kamutef: Herbert Ricke, Das Kamutef-Heiligtum Hatschepsuts und Thutmosis III
.
in
Kornak (Cairo 1954)
Ricke, UserkafI: Herbert Ricke, Das Sonnenheiligtum des Konigs Userkaf, 2 Vols (Wiesbaden 1965, 1969) Ricke, Wohnhduser: Ludwig Borchardt and Herbert Ricke, Die Wohnhauser
in Tell
el-Amarna (Berlin 1980)
Schulz, Egypt: Regine Schulz, Agypten: die Welt der Pharaonen (Cologne 1997)
Spencer, Brick Architecture:
A.J.
Spencer, Brick Architecture in Ancient Egypt (Warminster 1979)
Sladelmann, Pyramiden von Giza: Rainer Stadelmann, Die grofien Pyramiden von Giza (Graz 1990) Stadelmann, Pyramufen: Rainer Stadelmann, Die Agyptischen Pyramiden,2nd Ed. (Darmstadt 1991) Stevenson Smith, Art:
W Stevenson Smith, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt (London 1958, 1981)
Strabo, Geographica: The Geography of Sfrabo, Vol. VIII (Cambridge,
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Studies Simpson: Peter Der Manuelian (Ed.), Studies in Honor of William Kelly Simpson, 2 Vols (Boston,
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Tempeltagung: Rolf Gundlach and Matthias Rochholz {Eds), Agyptologische Tempeltagung (Wiesbaden 1995) Vandier, Manuel: VI.
Congresso:
VI.
J.
Vandier,
Manuel d'archeologie egyptienne, Vols
Vitruvius, Architecture: Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (time of Caesar
Ingrid D. R. Wilkinson,
1/2,
II/1-2 (Paris 1952, 1954, 1955)
Congresso Internationale di Egittologia, 2 Vols (Turin 1992-1993)
and Augustus), The Ten Books on
The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt (London 2001) M. Zivie et al., Le temple de Deir Chelouit,Vol IV Etude Architecturale (Cairo 1992)
Zivie, Deir Chelouit: Christiane
Journals and Book Series (with abbreviated
titles)
AA
Archdologischer Anzeiger des Deutschen Archaologischen Institutes (Berlin)
ASAE BASOR
Annales du Service des Antiquites de I'Egypte (Cairo)
BdE
Bibliotheque d'etude (Cairo)
Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research
Beitrage zur Agyptischen Bauforschung
BeitrageBf
BIE
Architecture,
Rowland and Thomas Noble Howe (Eds) (Cambridge 2001)
"
und Altertumskunde (Wiesbaden)
Bulletin de I'institut d'Egypte (Cairo) 1
Institut francais d'Archeologie orientale (Cairo)
BIFAO
Bulletin de
BMMA
Bulletin of the Metropolitan
BSEG BSFE CdE
Bulletin de la Societe d'Egyptologie de
'
Museum
of Art,
New York
Geneve
Bulletin de la Societe francaise d'Egyptologie (Paris)
Chronique d'Egypte (Brussels)
274
!
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CNRS
Centre national de
CRAIBL DAI
Comptes rendus des seances de I'Academie des inscriptions
Deutsches Archaologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute)
EPRO ET
Etudes
FIFAO
Fouilles de Tlnstitut francais d'archeologie orientale
GM
Gottinger Miszellen (Gottingen)
JARCE
Journal of the American Research Center
JDAI
Jahres
JEA
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (London)
JEOL
Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptischen Genootschap 'Ex oriente lux' (Leiden)
JHS
Journal of Hellenic Studies (Athens)
JNES
Journal of Near Eastern Studies (Chicago)
JSSEA
Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities (Toronto)
la
recherche scientifique (Paris) et belle lettres (Paris)
Etudes preliminaires aux religions orientales dans I 'empire romain (Leiden) et
Travaux (Warsaw)
du Caire (Cairo)
in Cairo
KMT
KM. T, A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt (San Fransisco)
MAS MDAIK
Munchner agyptologische
MIFAO MIO
Memoires de
OIP
Oriental Institute Publications (Chicago)
studien (Munich)
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo (Cairo) Tlnstitut Francais d'Archeologie Oriental (Cairo)
Mitteilungen des Instituts fiir Orientforschung (Berlin)
OLZ
Orientalistische Literaturzeitung (Berlin)
Orientalia
Orientalia
RdE RT
Revue d'Egyptologie Recueil de Travaux
SAK
Studien zur Altagyptischen Kultur (Hamburg)
SDAIK
Sonderhette des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts Kairo (Cairo)
SSEA Journal
Society of the Studies of Egyptian Antiquities (Toronto)
(Rome) (Paris)
relatifs
a
la
philogie et a Tarcheologie egyptiennes et assyriennes (Paris)
WZKM
Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes (Vienna)
ZAS
Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache
und Altertumskunde
(Berlin)
I
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Dieter Arnold
Museum
of Art,
Curator
at
the Metropolitan
New York, and
has for forty years
is
been conducting excavations El-Lisht,
in Egypt, at Thebes,
and Dahshur, among other
sites.
He
is
the
author of numerous books on Egyptian architecture,
including Building
in
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Pyramid Complex of Senwosret HI
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New Jersey
08540
www.pupress.princeton.edu
'v
I
Jacket illustration: Statue court of the
(Temple of Ramesses
Jacket design: Brian
t
II at
Ramesseum
Luxor)
Robins
v
F
This
first
English edition of Dieter Arnold's Encyclopedia ofAncient
Egyptian Architecture
is
very
much
work
advantages of Arnold's
to be that
is
welcomed. One of the
greatest
written by a single specialist,
it is
well-acquainted with the monuments, experienced in field-work, and a very
good communicator. The
on
particular types
characteristics,
greatest value lies in the extended entries
of building, on
specifically
and on the employment
Egyptian
in ancient
stylistic
Egypt of certain
materials and technical methods. The Encyclopedia ofAncient Egyptian Architecture will
indeed
fill
a very obvious gap in the range of
Egyptological reference works.
T.G.H. James
Formerly Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities,
The
Museum
British
Unquestionably, Arnold's Encyclopedia ofAncient Egyptian a
is
most
significant addition to the field
Architecture
of Egyptology and to the study
of ancient architecture in general, while also serving student and lay needs for a
comprehensive reference work.
Its
amount of information provided on an it
significance lies largely in the
extraordinarily
wide range of topics;
moves from temples, tombs, and other monumental
structures to the
arenas of the living, such as palaces, houses, and towns. This refreshingly catholic interpretation of architecture
work
that treats
all
of
its
especially valuable in a reference
topics with seriousness
judgement, vast experience, and
and
sensitivity to the data
Egyptian cultural context are also
These contribute
is
at
work throughout
in an unobtrusive but powerful
care. Arnold's
and the relevant the Encyclopedia.
way
to the
great value of the book.
David O'Connor Lila
Acheson Wallace Professor
New York
University,
in
Ancient Egyptian Art,
Institute
of Fine Arts,
and Professor Emeritus, University of Pennsylvania
Manufactured
in the
UK