THE OXFORD GRAMMAR
0F I
Classical Greek I James Morwood
OX.FORD T'NIVBRSITY PRBSS
OX-FORD
Contents
UNIVTRSITY Pl'ESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6Dp Oxford University Press is a department oI the University of Oxlord. It furthes the Univereity's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in
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First published 2001
All ights rcseryed. No pan oI rhis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retdeval system, or Uansmitted, in any form or by any means, without the pdor pemission in writing of Oxfod UniveFity Press, or as expressly pemitted by law, or under terDs agred with the appropriate reprographic rights orgmisation. Enquiies concernint reprcduction
Preface
Y
Acknowledgements Glossary of grammatical terms Abbreviations The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
A history of the pronunciation of Greek in the UK
Y
vii xvii
I 7
Reference Grammar l{ouns, adjectives and pronouns Number and gender
t0 10
Cases
10
The definite article
Pronouns
24 25 32 45 46
Correlatives
51
Data available
Numerals
53
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Preoositions
56
outside the scop€ of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford Unive6ity Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book
in any other binding or cover
and you must impose this sme condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Nouns
Adjectives Adverbs
60
Verbs
oz
ISBN 978-0-19-860456-3
Verbs in
9
Verbs with a 2nd aorist
69
Root aorists
7T
in Slimbach by Alliance PhotorypesetteF, Pondicherry, India Printed in Creat Britain by Clays Ltd, St lves plc Typeset
ro
Contracted verbs Verbs in
pr
lrregular verbs Top 101 irregular verbs More principal parts
73
80 93
98 110
Constructions The definite ailicle
122
Relative clauses
127
Time, place and space
t3l
I iv I Contents Padiciples
r36
Pronouns
t4
Sequence of tenses and moods
152
Indirect statement
154
Subordinate clauses in indirect statement Direct and indilect questions Commands, exhortalions and wishes
Indireci commands Because Purpose clauses Result clauses
159 161
t68 170 172 174 117
€rp'$ and 6q'
t79
Verbs of fearing and precaution Gonditional sentences
Conditional sentences in indirect statement
180 183
188
lmpersonal Yerbs
190
The gerundive
193
Indefinite clauses
t95
lime clauses
197
npiv
199
Verbs ol preventing, hindering and denying
201
The negatives
2U
Panicles
207
yeu8rig gilor
-
wonls easily confused
Some tips
214 218
Appendices Accents
222 227
Dialect
Homeric dialect Herodotus' lonic dialect New Testament Greek
227
228
The dual
229 232
Some literary terms
2U
Vocabulary
241
-
English
247
English
- Greek
255
Greek
Preface
lndex of Greek words
2U
lndex
267
This grammar is intended for those studying Greek in schools and universities as well as the ever-increasing number who learn it in adult education. It is a grammar of Attic Greek (the dialect centred on Athens) from about 500 to 300 BC, but there is an appendix giving key information about the Homeric and Ionic dialects and New Testament Greek. As in the companion Latin grammar, I have aimed to cut down on the amount of accidence with which traditional grammars of classical languages have confronted their readers. I have given a large number of principal parts but divided them into two lists, the first for learning, the second for reference. Again as in the Latin grammar, to the analyses of the constructions I have added sentences from both Greek into English and English into Greek through which students can practise what they are learning. Vocabularies which cover these sentences are included. Greek names have generally been Latinized in my English, e.g. Crito for Krit6n, Cyrus for Kiiros, and Thucydides for ThoukUdidEs. I am very conscious that the demands of pedagogical clarity have at times led me to take liberties with philological truth. I am also aware that my decision not to adjust the original words in any of the numerous quotations has made the Greek in this grammar less smoothly regular than that in any of its predecessors. The justification for this is that I wanted to centre the grammar around true unvarnished Attic.
Acknowledgements Any compiler of a grammar will inevitably owe a great deal to his predecessors. I am delighted to acknowledge my very considerable debt to two important American Greek grammars, those by William W. Goodwin (Macmillan, 1894; Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1992) and Herbert Weir Smyth (Harvard University, 1920; revised by Gordon M. Messing, 1956). These are too detailed for the tyro Greekist but remain classics in their field. The latter has proved especially valuable to me, and it will provide the answers to most questions left unanswered in this book. Raphael Ktihner and
Bernhard Gerth's monumental Ausfihrliche Grammatik der gri"echischen Sproche (Hanover, 1898-1904) is the fullest work of reference. I am equally delighted to express my appreciation of the generous help given me by the following: Michael Atkinson, Christopher Collard, E. J. Kenney, David Langslow, John Penney, Philomen Probert and John Thylor (who wrote the section on New Testament Greek). Rachel Chapman, James Clackson and Andrew Hobson have made important contributions, as has W. Sidney Allen. (The essay on the history of the pronunciation of Greek is in fact a simple prdcis of material in Allen's Vox Graeca.) Jason Zerdin has been the most vigilant and constructive of proof-readers. To my grateful acknowledgement of how much I owe to all of them, I must add that I take full responsibility for any errors which my obstinacy or carelessness has allowed to remain. Richard Ashdowne has been my amanuensis since the start of this project. He has seen to the production of the manuscript and has proved more than equal to the challenge set him by the scribblings with which I tittered the successive revisions. He has been a constant source not only of support but of helpful counsel too. I thank him warmly. I dedicate this book to the Joint Association of Classical Teachers' Greek Summer School at Bryanston, an institution which has played an incalculable r6le in ensuring the survival of Greek studies in the UK.
Glossary of grammatical teims aecent
a mark (acute, grave or circumflex) placed above a vowel or the second letter of a diphthong to indicate the musical pitch at which the accented syllable was pronounced.
accidence
the area of grammar dealing with endings.
accusative
the usual case of a direct object; many prepositions take the accusative.
active
has his/her/its/their state described (e.g. we are kind
:
ei1
adjective
a word describing, identifying or saying something about a noun, with which it agrees in gender, number and case: the bigbook d peya BrBl,iov; the book is big ro prBl.iov
:
James Morwood,
Wadham CoIIege, Oxford
the form of a verb most commonly used when the subject of the sentence performs the action (e.g. we do : noroOpev) or
:
(Eori) peya. adverb
a word which describes or changes the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb: he walks slowly fpa66a6
:
po6i(er.
:
agent
the person who causes an action: it was done by this man $nd totrcoo fup610r1.
agree with
have the same gender, case and number as.
antecedent
the noun, pronoun or clause to which a relative pronoun refers back.
aorist tense
the tense of a verb which refers to something that happened in the past: I dtdthis : ro0to inoi1oa. Distinguish between this past tense and the imperfect ('l was doing'), the perfect ('I have done') and the pluperfect ('I had done').
apodosis
the main clause of a conditional sentence, i.e. not the'if ...' or'unless ...'clause but the clause giving the result.
I viii I Glossary of grammatical terms apposition
aspect
Glossary of grammatical terms
the placing of a word, phrase or clause in parallel with another word, phrase or clause to give further information about the latter: George Washington, the President, spoke eloquently. the term referring to the distinction between two ways in which a verb can convey time (the time and the type of time) - see p. 61.
augment
something added at the beginning of verbs to denote a past tense. If the verb begins with a consonant, this is the letter 6-: for example, dnouov is the imperfect of no6co.
cardinals
see numerals.
case
the form of a noun, pronoun, adjective or article that shows the part it plays in a sentence; there are six cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and locative.
conjunction c0ns0nant
a sound, or letter representing a sound, that is used together
with a vowel, such as F,y,6; cf. vowel. construction
the way in which a clause is constructed grammatically.
contraction
the process by which two vowels or a vowel and a diphthong standing next to each other in adjacent syllables are united into a single vowel or diphthong, e.g. 1p6oe-og (golden) contracts to lpDoo0g and dpd-erq (you honour) contracts to ripQq.
dative
the case of an indirect object; among the many meanings of the dative are 'to', 'for', 'with' and 'by'; many prepositions take the dative.
declension
there are a number of patterns according to which Greek nouns change their endings; we call these declensions. go through (or, more literally, down) the different cases of a noun, adjective or pronoun, in order.
decline
c0mm0n
either masculine or feminine in gender, according to meaning: man = ri dv0pronog; woman : f'dv0pronoq.
definite anicle in English, 'the'; in Greek, 6, f1, t6.
comparative
the form of an adjective or adverb that makes it mean 'more', 'rather' or 'too': more wise (wiser), rather wise, too
complement
deictic
corprinryoE.
a word or phrase which describes the subject of the verb and completes the description; it is used with verbs such as 'I am' and 'l become' which cannot take an object:
: t
pntnp oogti Eorw; my mother
deictic (noun: deixis) is used of words or expressions which 'point' (- 8eirvDpr) to some feature of a situation. Pronouns (e.g., oOtoq, o0tooi, Creivoq (this, this ... here, that), etc.) and words of place (iv066e, Brei (here, there), etc.) and time (v0v, t6te (now, then), etc.) tell us such things about a situation as who is involved in it, and where
it
takes place.
my mother is intelligent became priestess : i pitnp i6pua tytvero.
deliberative
showing that a thought process about a possible action is going on: What am I to do?
compound verb
a verb formed by adding a prefix to a simple verb:
deponent
the passive form of a verb when that form is active in meaning.
concessive clause
a clause usually beginning in English with the word
diaeresis
two dots (") placed over the second of two adjacent vowels which are to be pronounced separately: got (to an ox).
conditional
a clause usually beginning in English with the words
dialect
this term refers to the different forms of Greek used in different areas of the Greek world. The chief dialects that occur in literature are Aeolic, Doric, Ionic and Attic.
diminutive
a word formed from another to express diminished size, e.g. 'hillock' from 'hill' - rd ror8iov (little child) from noiq
clause conjugate
I overshoot = inep$a\.)rro. 'although' or'though'.
'if',
'if not' or 'unless'. give the different forms of the verb: nabr:a., nabuE, no,bet, naisopw, nabe:r, nab ooot i Enaoov, dnoue6, dnaue, et c.
I
:
a section of a sentence in which there are at least a subiect and a verb.
:
ix
a word used to join clauses, phrases or words together: men andwomen dv6psq rai yuvoireg.
clause
wise
I
(ch
ild).
I x I Glossary diphthong
of grammatical terms
Glossary of grammatical terms I xi
the union of two vowels pronounced as one syllable (or, more properly, one vowel followed by a glide into a second
gerundive
a verbal adjective which expresses the idea of obligation: this is Uequiring-)to-be-done (i.e., this must be done) roir, o notrJt Eov dotiv.
imperative
the parts of the verb that express a command: do this!
vowell. direct obiect
see
object (direct).
enclitic
ending
feminine
finite verb
imperfect tense
the tense which expresses continuous or repeated or incomplete action in the past: I was considering : dv6p(ou.
can adopt a special form which is known as the dual (see pp. 232-3).
impersonal verb
a verb introduced in English by the word 'it' (e.9., 'it is raining'), and in Greek used impersonally in the 3rd person
a short word which cannot stand alone but has to follow another word, onto which it throws back its accent (see p. 224). 'Enclitic' means 'leaning on'. a letter or letters added to the stem (or modification of the stem) of verbs, nouns and adjectives, in order to mark tense, case, etc. Compare the way in which an English noun changes in the plural: dish, dishes.
one of the three Greek genders: 1po06 (old woman) and voOg (ship) are both feminine nouns; they take the feminine form of the article, f1.
gerund
singular: it is necessary for me indefinite
article indefinite construction
the class in which a noun or pronoun is placed in a grammatical grouping; in Greek, these classes are masculine, feminine, neuter and common (i.e. masculine or feminine according to meaning).
: pipe.
in English, 'a' or'an'; there is no indefinite article in Greek, though enclitic ttq can serve as an equivalent: a (certain) woman
:
Yuvn
z16.
the English word 'ever' added to the end of another word brings out the force of this construction. Compare 'Pericles, who says that, is mad' (specific) with 'Whoever says that is
mad' (indefinite). indicative
usually refers to a verb when it makes a statement or asks a question: toOro einev : he said this. With reference to Greek, the word usually indicates that the verb is not in the imperative, subjunctive, optative, infinitive or participle.
indirect
the reporting of an actual (direct) command, e.g. Do this! (direct speech, direct command): She instructed him to do fhls (indirect command).
a verb with a personal ending, as opposed to infinitives and participles.
:
genitive
:
in Greek, nouns or adjectives representing two people or things, and verbs with two people or things as their subject,
future perfect the tense of a verb that refers to something in the future at a tense stage after it has happened: I shall have ceased rma6oopot. In Greek this is a rare form - many verbs do not possess it - and it appears in the middle or passive (indistinguishable from each other in appearance). gender
:
toito noia.
direct speech the words actually used by a speaker. dual
I
command
indirect object
the noun or pronoun indirectly affected by the verb, at which the direct object is aimed: I gave him the book :
td prpl,iov indirect question
the case that shows possession; among its many meanings, the dominant one is 'of'; in Greek it is also the case of separation; many prepositions take the genitive.
indirect
a verbal noun. Greek uses the neuter singular of the definite
infinitive
statement
article followed by the infinitive to supply this: the art of fighting : fil'r,A pdpoQat r626vr1.
the reporting of an actual (direct) question, e.g. What are you doing? (direct speech, direct question): I asked her what she was doing (indirect question). the reporting of someone's words, e.g. I have done this (direct statement): He said that he had done this (indirect statement).
the form of a verb that means 'to do something': to teach : 6r66orerv. In Greek, infinitives vary according to tense and voice.
inflection
auz@ d6coro.
see ending.
I xii I Glossary of grammatical terms interjection
a sound, word or phrase standing outside the grammatical structure of the sentence and expressing an emotion such as
distress, joy or disgust: alas! intransitive
Glossary of grammatical terms I xiii
:
oipor.
a verb which does not take a direct object, e.g. 'go', 'come'.
verb
irregular verb a verb that does not follow the set pattern of nofro (the regular verb in this Grammar) and either belongs to a small class of verbs or has its own individual forms. jussive
giving an order.
locative
the case which tells us where something is happening: oiror = at home; A0rivqor = in Athens.
macr0n
a line above a vowel indicating that
main clause
the clause which is the basic grammatical unit of a sentence. Although I love her, she still avoids me.' 'She still avoids me' makes sense on its own, while 'although I love her' does not. Thus 'she still avoids me' is the main clause. and 'although I love her' is a subordinate clause. one of the three Greek genders: dvrlp (man) and l"6yoq (word) are both masculine nouns; they take the masculine form of the definite article, 6.
middle
a term applying to certain Greek verb forms. The middle often has a reflexive quality: na'bopat : I stop myself, i.e. I cease: g|popot : I carry off for myself, I win. However, a number of verbs have a middle form but an entirely active meaning, e.g. fl8opot : I rejoice.
negative
number
the state of being either singular or plural or dual.
numerals
numbers; these are either cardinals (1, 2, 3, etc.), ordinals (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) or adverbs (once, twice, three times, etc.).
likelihood or time. (The pronunciations '6ptative' and 'optative' are both current, with the UK having a preference for the latter.) ordinals
see numerals.
parse
to give a full grammatical description of a word: for verbs this means to give the person, number, tense, mood, voice and meaning, e.g., rptl,eig is the second person singular present indicative active of
particle
Greek particles, short words which never change, can connect clauses and qualify - and colour - words, phrases or clauses.
paniciple
an adjective formed from a verb (it can still take an object). In Greek, participles are either present (a lovingwoman : yuvil rpil"a6oa), future (about to love her husband : gtLfooooa tdv civ6po), aorisl (after lovingher husband : tpt),fioooa tdv dv8po) or perfect (after having died, i.e. being dead : reOvrlroic).
expressing denial, refusal or prohibition. In English, the
words 'no' or 'not' are generally used. one of the three Greek genders: ytil,cr (milk) and 66pov (gift) are both neuter nouns: thev take the neuter form of the definite article. t6.
nominative
the case of the subject of a sentence or (usually) of the complement of a verb: the king is angry = 6 faoil,ebE
6pyi(eror.
a Greek mood of the verb which does not express statements
but such concepts as 'would', 'might', 'if only!' It is also used in the indefinite construction and in certain subordinate clauses. It is more remote than the subjunctive in either
the grammatical form of a verb which shows whether it is in the indicative, subjunctive, optative or imperative.
neuter
:
object (direct) a noun or its equivalent acted upon by a transitive verb: the dog bites the boy : 6 r6rov rdy rai6a6(rcvet.
D.
masculine
mood
a word that names or denotes a person or thing: 6vopo name or noun, Brp)"iov book,6pyrl anger.
optative
it is long, e.g. o i
:
noun
:
I
part of speech a grammatical term identifying the function of a word: noun,
adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection. passive
when the verb is in the passive form, the subject of the verb does not perform the action but experiences it: the king was loved : 6 poorl,eirq EWM04.ln Greek, a significant number of middle verbs use the passive form in the aorist (see p. 66).
I xiv I Glossary of grammatical terms peilect tense
pers0n
Glossary of grammatical terms I xv
the tense of a verb that refers to a completed action, the effects of which still continue in the present; in English the word 'have' or 'has' is generally used: he has written a letter (and it is now written) : yd,ypatpev iarotol"flv. The Greek perfect may often be translated by the present: r60v4re : he has died, i.e. he is dead.
a self-contained group of words which does not contain a finite verb: I walked through the city.
=
the tense that means 'had', referring to a past state resulting from a completed action: the flower had bloomed (and was then in flower) : rd dv0og fivfifrca. of nouns and other parts of speech, referring to more than one: the ships : ol vfleq.
positiYe
not negative; (of adjectives) not comparative or superlative.
possessive plonoun
a pronoun, in an adjectival form, that shows possession, belonging to someone or something: my, mine : dp6g, 6pr1, 6p6v. a syllable or word added to the beginning of another word:
I ovenhoot
:
incpp6"?,,),a.
a word that stands (almost always) in front of a noun or pronoun to produce an adverbial phrase. It expresses a spatial, temporal or logical meaning. In Greek it is followed by the accusative, genitive or dative: according to the laws
:
sentence.
a word referring back to the subject of the main verb and indicating that the action of the verb is performed on its subject: he killed himself : dn6rrervev iann6v. The reflexive pronoun never appears in the nominative.
regular verb
a verb that follows na6or in its forms.
relative
a pronoun that introduces a subordinate clause, identifying the person or thing mentioned in the main clause: the man tvho loves me : 6 dvrlp dg qrl"ei dp6.
pr0n0un
sentence
a group of words with a subject and a verb, that can stand on its own to make a statement, ask a question, give a command or express a wish.
sequence of tenses and
the principle according to which the use of a certain tense in the main clause determines whether the subjunctive or the optative should be used in a subordinate clause.
moods
singular
of nouns and other parts of speech, referring to just one: the tree : rd 66v6pov.
stem
the part of a noun, adjective or verb to which endings are added: .lo7- is the stem of fuiyo; = word; ra6- is the stem of natxn : I slop;na6o- is the stem of.na{na: I shall stop.
subject
in a clause or sentence, the noun or pronoun that causes the action of the verb or has his/her/its/their state described: the queen killed the king : f1 fooilera dn6rterve rdv
rcatdroDq v6poug.
pooil.6a.
present tense the tense of a verb that refers to something happening now: I am playing, I play noi(
:
parts
pr0n0un
6yr6, o6.
plural
pdncipal
'if ...' or 'unless ...' clause of a conditional
reflexive
phrase
preposition
the
dual
-
a pronoun that refers to a person, e.g. l, you
prefix
protasis
:
I (singular), we (plural); 2nd person - you (both singular
a term identifying the subject of a verb: 1st person
pelsonal pron0un
tense
a word that stands instead of a noun (person or thing), e.g. 'it' used in place of 'the tree': this, that o0rog, oilrr1, ro0ro; 6reivoq, dreivq, ireivo. See also personalpronoun.
reduplication the process by which verbs begining with a single consonant (but not p) form a prefix in the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect by adding that letter followed by an e at the beginning: no6o:, zdnouro, 6zano6r4, zaco6oopor.
and plural); 3rd person - he, she, it (singular), they (plural); - both of you (2nd person), both of them (3rd person). (Adjective: personal.)
plupeilect
pronoun
I
the forms of a verb that must be learnt to give access to all its parts.
subiunctive
a verb form that is used, among many other functions, to express doubt, unlikelihood or possibility; it is less remote
than the optative in either likelihood or time. Words such as 'may', 'might' and 'should' can indicate a subjunctive in
English (see p. 61).
I xvi I Glossary of grammatical terms subordinate clause
a clause which depends on another clause (usually the main clause) of the sentence in which it stands. In the sentence, 'He is an author who is easy to understand', the clause 'who is easy to understand'describes the author. The clause would not make sense on its own. Thus it is subordinate.
superlative
the form of an adjective or adverb that makes it mean 'most' or'very': mosf small (smallesf), verysmall = pirpdrauE.
syllable
part of a word that forms a spoken unit, usually a vowel sound with consonants before and/or after: oup-pril"-l.ro
(l throw together);
o'6-vo-6og (meeting).
syntax
the area of grammar dealing with constructions.
tense
the form of a verb that shows when the action takes place: present, future, perfect, etc. (The word 'tense' is related to French temps (: time).t
terminations
the endings of nouns, adjectives and verbs that show their case, number, gender, tense, person etc.
tragedy
the tragic plays of the three great Attic poets of the fifth century BC, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.
transitive
a verb used with a direct object either expressed or understood, e.g. 'pick apples' or 'pick till you are tired' (but
verb
not 'he picked at his lunch' verb vocative
voice
-
here 'picked' is intransitive).
a word that describes an action: I arrived at Athens dgixtip4v eig tdq A04voq.
:
the case by which one addresses or calls to someone; Demosthenes, come here! : eo /4p6o0eue6, il"Od 6e0po. the set of forms of a verb that show the relation of the subject to the action, i.e. (in Greek) active, middle or
Abbreviations acc. act, aor. c.
a sound, or letter representing a sound, that can be spoken by itself: o, r, Tl, r, o, cD, D.
indef. indefinite
active
infin. infinitive
aorist
intr. m.
common (i.e, masculine or feminine as appropriate)
cf.
confer (Latin for 'compare')
dat. def. e.g.
dative
etc.
definite
intransitive masculine
mid.
middle
n,
neuter
N.B.
NOTA BENE
(Latin for 'note well')
nom. nominative
opt.
optative
(Latin: 'for [the sake of anl example')
P(P). pass.
page(s)
et cetera
perfect
(Latin for 'and so on')
f. fut.
pf. pl.
feminine
plpf.
pluperfect
future
gen.
pp.
pages
genitive
i.e.
pple. participle
id est (Latin for 'that is', introducing an
sg.
singular
subi.
subjunctive
explanation)
tr.
transitive
imperfect
usu.
usually
passive. vowel
accusative
impf.
exempli gratio
passive
plural
The Greek alp.habet and its pronunciation Greek
written
as
lotter
small
English equivalent
Recommended pronunciationl
(standard southern British English)
capital
alpha
0,
A
short: as in awake, Italian amare long: as in father, Italian amare
beta
B
Bb
as English b
gamma
y
fe
as in go
before finger
r, X,E,y:
as
in ink,
lynx,
as French d (with tongue on teeth,
delta
not gums)
epsilon
short, as in pgt
€
E
zeta ( eta n theta 0
z
sd
as
H
c
long, as in air
@
th
as in lop (emphatically pronounced); later, as in thin
in wiselom
short: as in lit, French vitesse long: as in bead
rota
lshort iota is often written under Diphthongs, belowl
r'1, co
or Iong d, i.e. r;,
ro,
g (iota subscript)
- see under
Kappa
K
lambda
),
mup nuv
xi
e
Kc AI Mm Nn 11
hard c: as in skill; contrast khi as
in leap
as in met as x
as
in net in box
I Where two recommendations are given for pronunciation, the first is a less accurate approximation than the second.
lZ t fn. Greek
The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation | 3
Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
English
written as
equivalent
lettel
small
o pi n p rho sigma o, g omicron
Recommended pronunciation
(standardsouthern British English)
as
capital
O fI P I
o p r s
tlu
as eu, but with the first part longer
short, as in pqt, German Gqtt
ot
as
as in spot; contrast phi
()l)
Scottishrolledl
I
as
ln srng,
lesson
in bqy, coin as in pool, French rquge close to French
)t
r1r
(rrl
with iota subscript)
of a word, o elswhere, e.g. 6otrq. Many Greek texts print a so-called lunate sigma, c, capital C (in the shape of the crescent moon), which is used in all positions, e.g. Sctrc.l
r
T
t
upsilon u
Y
u,
as English ! in stop(with tongue on teeth not gums); contrast theta
y
short: as in French lune, German Mtiller long: as in French ruse, German MUhle
phi
rp
@
ph
khi
y
X
ch
as in pot (emphatically pronounced); later, as in loot as
in kill (emphatically pronounced);
later, as in Scottish loqh
psi
V omega co
Y O
ps 6
as
in
lapge
as in saly
Throughout this Grammar, where o, I or D are long, they are marked by a macron (i.e. o, i, D), unless they are already shown to be long either by an iota subscript beneath them (i.e. g) or by a circumflex above them (except that, when r or u forms part of a diphthong, a circumflex does not indicate that the r or u is long but that the diphthong as a whole is long).
I Diphthongs ry
(d with iota subscript)
01
as
in high
tIU
as
in
E1
as in fianc6e, German Bggt
ED
as in Cockney belt
how
as ro (more correctly with r sounded
Itreathings and accents (see below for both) are written over the second lctter of a diphthong, e.g. o16o (l know). Where one of the above r'ornbinations is pronounced as two separate vowels, breathings are written over the first letter, e.g. di6pr6 (ignorant), while the accent is written over thc vowel to which it belongs. Note also the diaeresis ("). ln many modern texts the iota subscript will not be found. The iota will bc placed at the same level as the other letters (e.g.
I Double consonants When double consonants are used, the sound is correspondingly lengthened, e.g. unnamed (compare unaimed) hio-oocket fifa oo disservice 'c,T, rat-trap 'l'he exception is yy which is pronounced as in linger, i.e. as if vy. Similarly, yK yI are pronounced with an 'n' as in engore and anchor. Note also that in many words Attic has rt where other dialects (including Ionic) have oo: thus 0&l"otro (the sea) is Attic, cf. Od},oooo.
I as long o (more correctly with r sounded at the end)
hU_it
at the end)
[q is used at the end
tau
q (more correctly with r sounded at the end)
n (n with iota subscript)
Moveable v
In the accidence tables in this Grammar you will see that some forms are given which end in (v). This is the so-called moveable nu, which is generally added at the end of a word when the next word begins with a
|
Ia
I
fn.
The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation | 5
Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
vowel. It can be added to words ending in -or, to the 3 sg. (of verbs) in -e and to €otr (: is). Compare the following:
EI
n&or 6i6orot to0ro
he gives these things to everybody
n&otv f;Dcorev o0rri
he gave these very things
to
everybody
Moveable nu can also be added at the end of a sentence, e.g. nOor to0ro d6orrev.
he gave these things to everybody
I Breathings Words which begin with a vowel have a breathing mark over the first (in the case of a diphthong, over the second) letter. This will either be: ' the'rough' breathing, denoting the sound 'h'; or ' the 'smooth' breathing, denoting the absence of the sound 'h' Note that all words beginning with p and u take a rough breathing, e.g. F66ov (rose) and U6rop (wate|, hence, e.g., 'rheumatism' and 'hydraulics'. Some examples:
f , oiltq, oirrl, 6 Firarp (speaker) Note the position of the breathing with capital letters: 'Hp66orog, Aio26ul,oq.
lCrasis
I Accents
' (acute), (grave) and ^ (circumflex), denote the musical pitch at which the accented syllable was pronounced. The acute (') denotes high pitch, the grave (') lower pitch and the circumflex (^, originally written as a grave and an acute combined, ") high pitch falling to low. This is difficult for English speakers - whose language is stressed to reproduce. Modern Greeks in fact use the accents to denote stress, not pitch place in - in fact, the change from the pitch to the stress accent took antiquity, probably before the end of the fourth century AD and -, Iinglish-speaking learners may wish to follow their example. In the UK, USA and Holland, there is a strong tradition of stressing Greek according to the rules for Latin (for which, see p. 1 of the companion Latin Grammar). This follows the mistaken arguments of a Dutch medical doctor named Henning in the 17th century and cannot be recommended in spite of its widespread use. The tradition of writing accents appears to have started at Alexandria around 200 BC and is generally accredited to Aristophanes of Byzantium. lnitially its use seems to have been intermittent and mainly to clarify ambiguities - in which respect it can still prove helpful. Accents are marked throughout this Grammar, and we outline various ways in which they are of use in the understanding of Greek on p. 218. llowever, those who do not wish to master the expertise of accentuation surely need feel no shame. It did not exist at the high period of Attic literature. Those who wish to go ahead are referred to the appendix on .lccentuation on pp. 222-6. Greek words have pitch accents, not stresses. These accents,
'
In Greek, some combinations of words which occurred frequently together
could coalesce to form a single word by a process called crasis (rpOorg : mixing), if the first ended in a vowel and the second began with one. This is similar to the English contraction in words like 'won't', 'shan't', 'l'm' and 'l'd'. In Greek it is usually indicated by a smooth breathing on the first vowel sound of the word even though it begins with a consonant. Some common examples (with their full forms) are: torJtd
rol"oi roi dyoOoi good and fine men td oritd the same things
lrir
roi
xol,oi rdyoOoi
drv6peq
6 drdv6pe6
In recognising crasis, it is worth remembering that combination of r or r with the rough breathing.
and the, and he O men!
I or 0 may represent a
|
I Punctuation 'Ihere was virtually no punctuation in fifth- and fourth-century Athens. Nor were there any gaps between words. It seems good sense, however, to adopt the conventions developed later in these areas. Note, therefore, the following punctuation marks: . full stop, as in English , comma, as in English ' colon or semi-colon (placed on a level with the top of the small letters) ; question mark (?l
I
OI
fn.
The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation | 7
Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
I Practice exercises
I
Write the following Greek words in English letters: 6p0po, innor6topog (-og : -us), Zefq, flnpOevdrv, l"6yl, fopyrbv, f1yil, A9po6io1, Brir1o6, npdtov.
Write the following English words in Greek:
acropolis (c : r), rhododendron, dogma, symposium (-um charact€r, asbestos, Sphinx, S6crat6s, Ath€n6, Cycl6ps.
:
-ov),
Which animals do you imagine make the following noises in Greek? o0 o0, pfi pfl, ppererer6(, rtrroBoO, r6rrD.r We give here a fable of Aesop (336) so that you can practise your
pronunciation: Copg rdv oitov Bpol6vto oi p6ppqreg dryDlov. t6ttr( 6i ),iprirtt
lerpdvog
ouvfiyeq roi oir tpopflv;' 6 6i elnev' 'oir io266lo(ov, dl"l,'fr6ov pouorrdrq.' oi 5i yel.&oovreq einov' '&1,1,' ei 06poug riiporq qiil,erq, lerpdlvoq dp26o0.' 6 p00o6 6111,o? 6cr o0 6ei crvo &pel,eiv €v nqvti np&ypau,lvo pl l"0nr10q roi rrv6Dve6oq. In the winter season, the ants dried out their drenched grain. A grasshopper who was famished with hunger asked them for food. The ants said to him, 'Why didn't you collect food in the summer like us (literally, also)?'And he said, 'l did not have the time, but I sang away melodiously.'And they said with a laugh, 'Well then, if you made music in the summer months, (you can) dance in the winter!' The story shows that one should not be negligent in any matter if one wants to avoid distress and danger.
I Some of these may defeat you. They are the calls of dogs, sheep, frogs, screech owls and cuckoos respectivelv.
A history of the pronunciation of Greek in the UK
ln 1267 , Roger Bacon, the English philosopher and experimental scientist, observed that there were not five men in Latin Christendom acquainted with Greek grammar. And despite efforts to improve the situation, Petrarch could count only eight or nine Italians who knew Greek a hundred years later. However, Italy did see a gradual growth in the teaching of Greek in the krurteenth and fifteenth centuries, a progress further speeded by the influx of Byzantine scholars after the fall of Constantinople to the Tirrks in 1453. Naturally enough, these scholars pronounced ancient Greek like their native tongue of modern Greek. Thus, in addition to the other distortions they inevitably inflicted upon the pronunciation of ancient Greek, they g.lve respectability to the considerable reduction of the rich variety of vowel sounds available to the classical language. t, t'1, D, e1, or and ut were ,rll pronounced as 'i', and the judgement of another English scholar of the following century Roger Ascham - the author of 'The Scholemaster' is understandable, however hyperbolically expressed: 'all sounds in Greek rre now exactly the same, reduced, that is to say, to a like thin and slender character, and subjected to the authority of a single letter, the iota; so that ,rll one can hear is a feeble piping like that of sparrows, or an unpleasant hissing like that of snakes.' Long before Ascham's broadside, scholarly doubts had arisen about the eurrent pronunciation of Greek. A Spanish humanist, Antonio of Lebrixa, led the way in 1486. In a further treatise of 1503, he argued, among other things, that 11 is a long vowel corresponding to e as c0 does to o, and that ( is pronounced o6. Further progress was made by the great Venetian printer Aldus Manutius, who was the first to cite the correct bleating pronunciation of pn Bn, rejecting the current 'vee vee'. Then in 1528 Erasmus' dialogue De recta Latint Graecique sermonis pronuntiatione ('Concerning the correct pronunciation of Latin and Greek') was published in Basle. This light-hearted conversation between a bear (the instructor) and a lion was a milestone on the journey towards the re-establishment of the classical pronunciation. Though his work appeared to have liberated ancient Greek from the tyranny of its modern delivery Erasmus himself did not in fact practise what he preached. The credit for practical application of the reformed pronunciation must go to two Cambridge scholars, John Cheke and
|
I s I fnu
Greek alphabet and its pronunciation
Thomas Smith, who in 1540 were elected Regius Professors of Greek and Civil Law respectively. Their attempts to establish the new pronunciationt were temporarily halted when the Chancellor of the University published in 1542 an edict specifically forbidding it - undergraduates, he claimed, were becoming insolent in making use of an exotic pronunciation and relishing the fact that their elders could not understand it. However, his edict was repealed in 1558. As W.S. Allen2 remarks, 'with all their imperfections, the 16th-century reforms resulted in something like an approximation to what we now believe to have been the classical Attic values . . .'. The so-called Erasmian pronunciation now reached out from England to the continent. But at the very time that English scholarship seemed to be leading the rest of Europe in this area, it suffered a major set-back. In the sixteenth century, the Middle English vowel system shifted to that of modern English (the so-called Great English Vowel Shift). This altered the nature of the English long vowels to which sixteenth-century scholars had, with remarkable accuracy, tied the Greek vowel sounds. The most notorious examples of what happened are the pronunciation of q as in mgat, or as in pAy, er as in kaleidoscope, and oD as in gown. And so by the end of the nineteenth century, a new set of reforms had to be instituted. The Cambridge University Press has played an honourable rOle in publishing the necessary documentation. First, there was The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin by E.V. Arnold and R.S. Conway (1895, 4th revised edition 1908). Then there was Tlte Tbocling of Classics (1954). Finally there has been the influential work of W. Sidney Allen (Vox Graeca, 1968). We begin the new millennium with no excuse for failing to fall in line with philological scholarship in this important area.
I Not directly derived from Erasmus. Cheke and Smith did not, in fact, always agree among themselves: while Cheke pours scorn on 'af af' as the English equivalent of a Greek dog's a0 o0, Smith cites the 'af af' bark of Maltese terriers. 2
This essay is in fact a summary of pp. 125-34 of W. Sidney Allen's Vox Graeca fCambridge,2nd edition, f974). The quotation is from p. 130.
Reference grammar
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns
Nours, adiectives and pronouns I Number and gender In English grammar we are familiar with the concept of number, i.e. singular and plural: The girl was cleverer than the boys but they were not afraid of her. Here the words in bold are in the singular, while the words underlined are
in the plural. We are also familiar with the concept of gender, i.e. masculine, feminine
and neuter: The boy and the girl love the parrot but it feels no affection for them. Here the boy is 'masculine' and the girl is 'feminine'. While the parrot will of course in reality be either male or female, it is here regarded as neither; hence the word 'it'. This is the 'neuter' gender. The assignment of gender in Greek will strike English speakers as extremely arbitrary. Greek, for example, has a feminine as well as a neuter
word for 'book', and feminine words for 'island', 'army' and 'cavalry'.
I Cases Greek is an inflected language, i.e. the endings of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs change to reflect their relationship with other words in a sentence. English is largely uninflected, though some words do change
I
'Whom', 'her' and 'me' are the accusative (direct object forms) of 'who', (You can see how English tends to abolish inflection from the f.rct that most speakers nowadays would say 'who' and not 'whom', or ornit the word altogether, in the first sentence.) Verbs in tenses (see pp. 60-1) with personal endings are called finite
'she'and'I'.
vcrbs; they have subiects and often have obiects. The subject carries out rhe action of the verb; the object is on the receiving end of the action of the vcrb. In the first sentence above, 'I' is the subject of the verb 'am searching for', and 'a woman' is the object. 'I' am doing the searching; 'a woman' is lrt'ing searched for. The subject is in the nominative case; the object is in lhe accusative case. Which words are the subjects and the objects in the following sentences? He is studying his grammar. The dog keeps distracting him. I am watching them. These people I am watching especially carefully.
ln what case are the following? she, her, whom, us, me Numinative and accusative are the names of two of the Greek cases' In (lreek there are five main cased, and they all have names which are still rrsr.d in English grammars. In Greek the endings of nouns, pronouns and adjectives vary according t() the case they are in as well as according to their number and gender.r (it'nerally speaking, in modern English this happens only with some l)ronouns, as in the examples above. 'l'he endings by which the cases are marked on most Greek nouns fall into a number of regular patterns. (The word 'case' comes from the Latin word meaning 'fall'.) We call these patterns declensions. It is customary to rt'cognise three of these in Greek. To decline is to go through (or down) the different cases of a noun, adjective or pronoun in order.
according to their function. I am searching for a woman whom I admire, but I cannot find her. ls she avoiding me? I In the vocabulary lists in this grammar, nouns are given in their nom. and gen. singular [though the gen. is omitted in the case of regular nouns of the first and second declensions), while adjectives and pronouns are given in their nom. sg. masculine, feminine and neuter.
12 | Nouns, adjectives and pronouns
In Greek, adjectives are in the same number, gender and case as the nouns to which they refer. (This is called agreement.) The endings, however, may differ since the adjective may belong to a different declension from its noun.
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns
I fS I
Note the use of the nominative with a vocative force in these examples: 6 noiq, drol"o60er 6e0po (Aristophanes, Frogs 521) Boy, follow me over herel oOtog,
ri naoyeq,6 ror66otpov Ecrv0id;
(Aristophanes, Wasps
l)
You there, what's your problem, you accursed Xanthias?
1 | Nominative
dr
6 Xoxpdtlq oivrypotofdrq l,61et. Socrates is speaking in riddles.
It is also used for the complement of the verb, when the verb's subiect is in the nominative. X
EI
Neuter plural subjects are almost always followed by singular verbs:
rd oirrlpoto rixo6opf10n. The buildings were put up.
yewniog (Plato,
Phaedrus 277c)
0h, the noble man!
The nominative is, as we have seen, the case of the subiect of the verb:
3 | Accusative l lre accusative
is, as we have seen, the case of the (direct) object:
9rl,6r tilv I love the old woman. yptrOv.
Not(':
the'cognate' accusative: Ilere the noun in the accusative is from the same origin as the verb ('cognate' means 'born together with'), e.g. dl.l,qv nol,l,i1v
ri npooyel"&te rdv ntrvriototov y6),rrrv; (Euripides, Medea
7047)
Why do you smile the last smile you will ever smile?
2 lVocative The vocative is the case by which one addresses or calls to someone. It is used with or without rir (O!): rb
Zet roi Oeoi (Plato, Protagoras 370d)
O Zeus and you gods! erg, Aiolivq; (Demosthenes 18. 121) Do you hear, Aeschines?
drof
The vocative is generally identical or close in form to the nominative and so is not included in the tables in this Grammar. Where a separate form needs to be learnt, we have given it in a note.
the accusative of respect: n66oq rirrUq Ap),1"e69 (Homer) swift-footed Achilles (literally, Achilles, swift as to (with respect to) his feet) 6reg0opp6vov rilv droflv (Herodotus 1.38) deaf (literally, destroyed/ruined as to his hearingJ nl"flyewo trlv regolilv nel.6ret (Herodotus 6.38) struck on his head with an axe
I t+
1
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns
t'lount, adjectives and pronouns
4 lGenitive
Some verbs are followed by two accusatives' e.g.
.
make somebody something, regard someone os somethtng orporrlyov ... ottdv dt66et[e . (Xenophon, Anabasis l.l-2)
'l'he basic meaning of the genitive case is 'of'. It is used mainly in these senses:
.
He appointed him general.
tpeiq tdrv €pdlv dl0Pdlv verPoirg 0r1oro, not6po te roi r6pqv n6orv t' dp6v. (Euripides, Medea 374-5) I shall make corpses of three of my enemies, the father and the girl
c
ask, teach someone sometldrug; conceal, take something away from someone
Colonus 38) What is this place? Which of the gods is it considered to belong to? @ourD6i6r1v tdv'Ol,6pou (Thucydides 4-104.4) Thucydides, the son of Olorus
.
.
toftcov tilv tipilv &nootepei pe. (Demosthenes 28.13) He robs me of the price of these things.
.
trcat someofte [well or bodly], speak of someone [well or badly] rcol,l"d dyo0d 6pdq Bnoiqoev. (Lysias 5.3) He did you much good. t6te 6fi 6 @eptotorl"6rlg rcetv6v te rcri toilq Koptv0iouq nol"l"d te roi rord 6l.e1e. (Herodotus 8.61) Then Themistocles spoke many damning words about that man and the Corinthians.
. . r
It is used after a large number of prepositions
(see
pp. 56-9).
It is used in many expressions of time, place and space For the 'accusative absolute', see pp. 141-2.
of pdec, value and the Penalty: iepd ... tprdrv tol,rivtarv (Lysias 30.20) offerings worth three talents dpyupiou ... npiooOcrt fl dto66o0ot to buy or sell a horse for moneY
(see
pp. 131-5).
innov' (Plato, Republic 333b)
ndvteq ij6eoov ... dnd oDrogovtitrg (dlvtoq ... inflyov 0ovdtou (Xenophon, Hellenlca 2.3 .12) the people who everybody knew were living off malicious prosecutions, they impeached on a caPital charge oUg
.
of ctimes: 8drprov
The following are other uses of the accusative:
18.104)
the needy among (out of) the citizens tov 6i neo6vto no66lv 6l.ape. (Home1 lltad 4.463) But he held him by his feet as he fell'
to0t' dportdl oe. (Aristophanes, Cbu'ds 6al) I am not asking you this. (Lysias 32.7) He concealed from his daughter her husband's death'
the partitive genitive:
toirg... dn6pouq tdrv nol-rtdrv (Demosthenes
o0
tilv 0uyot6po drcputte tdv 0dvotov toO dv6p6g.
oiritrv trlv Eipcovog (Lysias 3.32)
the house of Simon dg Eol'6 yirpog; toO 0ed)v vopi(etot; (Sophocles, Oedipus at
@rlBoior
eiepy6trlv, oottfrpa tdv @il'rnnov f11o0vto. (Demosthenes 18.43) The contemptible Thessalians and stupid Thebans considered Philip their friend, their benefactor, their saviour.
the possessive genitive:
tlv
and my husband.
oi ... rotdntuotot @ettoloi roi dvoio0qtot
| 15 |
drpi0rloov
(Lysias 27.3)
they were tried for briberY But note that compounds of roto- take the genitive of the person charged and the accusative of the crime: rotoytyv6orco (l condemn),
I to ; Nornr, adjectives
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns | 17
and pronouns
roto6rrd(o (l judge against), rotoryqgi(opor (l vote against), rotorpivro (l give sentence against) and rotrlyop6ro (l accuse). to6tou ... 8erliov rutorylqi(eo0or (Lysias 14.11)
o06' dporye 6orei 6rroiou to0t' etvor nol,itou. (Demosthenes 8.72) And this does not seem to me to be the duty of a just citizen.
.
o
of separation, lack: o0 n6vcov 0
.
of degree: eiq'ro0to, eig'tooo0to
to0to 0p6oouq roi &vor8eidq r6t'&qtrec[o] (Demosthenes 2r.r94)
eig ydp
for he reached such a pitch of boldness and shamelessness then
money. nol,X,oO 6ei oiitcoq
61etv (Plato, ApoloSy 35d)
That is far from being the case. (nol.l.oO 6ei much, much is lacking) 6v6e& ... r6l"l.ouq
:
6pdte ... oi rcpoel"r'11"u0' doel,yeitrq. (Demosthenes 4.9) You see to what a pitch of brutality he has come.
there is a lack of
ii dpetflq (Plato, Repablic 381c)
r
eiq 6r6oorril,ou rportdrv (PIato, Alcibiades I 109d) going to the school (i.e., (to the house) of the teacher)
At6oo (Homer) in, to (the kingdom of) Hades eiv (eiq)
r
of superiority:
pooil,efet. (Plato, Symposium I95c)
Love is king of the gods.
of exclamation (the thing exclaimed over): dr Ze$ poorl,e0, tflq l,ent6tqtog tdrv qpevdv. (Aristophanes, Clouds
IJJ
' O Kin! Zeus, what (an example of) subtlety of intellectl
'the r6le of', 'the nature of': nevidv g6perv o0 novt6g, dl"),'dv8pdg oo
verbs of desire (dnr00p6ro, dpriro) are followed by a genitive: (oi
(l love) and
no06ro
(l long for) take the
'l'he genitive is also used:
r . .
with a number of prepositions
(see
pp. 55-9)
in some expressions of time and space (see pp. 131-5) in the genitive absolute construction (see pp. 140-1)
'l'he following verbs take the genitive:
463) To bear poverty is
Apirppovoq (PIaIo, Protagoras 32Oa)
at Ariphron's (house)
of comparison: When fi (: than) is not used,l the object of comparison (i.e. the word after 'than' in English) is in the genitive. fitrcov ... dpo0qg oogo0, 6er1,dg dv8peiou. (Plato, Phaedtus 239a) An ignorant man is inferior to a wise man, a coward to a brave man.
the genitive may be found after dv and eig where the place is omitted: 6v
lacking in beauty or virtue
"Eprog tdrv Oedlv
of quality: d6vro ( : Attic civto) . . . tp6nou f1ou16iou (Herodotus 1.107) being of a peaceful disposition
to vote this man guilty of cowardice
the mark not of everybody, but of the wise man.
.
share in, take hold of, touch, aim at, miss, begin share in pertyo
(oul.)l.apBdvopcrt When fl is used, the people or things compared are in the same case: qrX.rir ydp oir oi pdl.l,ov il 66pouq dpo6g. (Euripides, Medeo 327) For I do not love you more than my own house.
6ntopor
take hold of grasp, take hold of
accusative.
|
I fa
0ryydv
cling to touch, take hold of
6pfyopor
reach out for, grasp at, long for
dpoprdvro
miss, fail to win am cheated of, foiled in
&vt61opor
orpdl"l"opor
iiip1o
begin meet with
tuyyivor
.
taste, smell, percetve, remember, desire (see p. 17 above), spare, care for, neglect, desptse ye6opar I taste
6o9poivopor
I smell I hear (usually with the accusative of the thing heard but the genitive of the person heard from)
dro6ot
I perceive I remember (something about a thing cs opposed to something as a whole) I take thought for
oio0dvopor p6pvqpor
I desire, love I long for, desire I spare, refrain from
6piepor gei6opor
inrp6l"opar
I
dnrpel.6opor
J
dpel"6cr dl,ryrop6ro
rororppov6ro
| | care for. take care of I neglect I despise, pay no attention to I despise, look down on
rule, command
dplro
rpot6o otporqy6ar
I command, rule over I get possession of, rule over I am general of
The above Iist is by no means exhaustive and a number of these verbs can take the accusative too.
I
rel
5 | Dative 'fhe basic meanings of the dative case are 'to' and 'for'. It goes naturally with verbs of giving and the like ('dative' derives from the Latin word for 'give'). These verbs are regularly followed by a direct object in the .rccusative and an indirect object in the dative. p66ov d8roro tt 6pn dbelgfl. I gave a rose (direct object) to my sister (indirect object). or I gave my sister a rose. ()(her uses of the dative include the following:
.
the possessive dative:
dl.l,orq piv ydp ypfipa'ca iott nol"},d rcri vfleq roi lnnor, {piv 6i [6ppo1or dyo0oi. (Thucydides 1.86.3) For others have a lot of money and ships and horses, but we have good allies {Iiterally, to others there is a lot of money '..).
.
of advantage or disadvantage: ndq dvrlp o6tQ novet. (Sophocles, Aiax 1366) Every man toils for himself.
I forget I desire
dnt00p6ro dpdcr
.
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns
; ruoun., adjectives and pronouns
ilbe f1 f1p6pd toiq "'Ell.r1or pe"ydkov ror6v dp€et. (Thurydides 2'12'4) This day will be the beginning of great sorrrows for the Greeks (r.e., for their disadvantage).
o
the 'ethic' or 'polite' dative: ro6rrp ndvu pot npoo6lete tdv vo0v. (Demosthenes 18.178) Pay close attention to this, I beg you. (i.e., Please pay ...)
Cf. 'Study me how to please the eye' (Shakespeare, Love's Labour's Lost r.i.80). 6r pfrrep, rbq ro1"6q por 6 ndnnog. (Xenophon, Educotion of Cyrus 1.3.2) Oh, mother, how handsome grandpa is (l've just realized)! In the second example, the feeling conveyed is surprise.
I zO ; t'lornt,
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns | 21
adjectives and pronouns
The following verbs take the dative:
Iikeness and unlikeness:
.
orroiq iorr6teg like shadows
'in':
il,rriq ... {:nr6rx rovv6oq (Thucydides 5.43.2) a man who was then still young in age dvilp
'with','by';
help
6pyi(opot
please am friendly, favourable to am angry with
dnetl.6to
threaten
tp0ov6co
feel ill-will towards, envy fight make war on, quarrel with
nol.ep6ro
it profits me, it is better for me
l.Dortel"ei por oup
v6orp iiotepov dno0sv6vts (Thurydides 8.84) having died later of (from) a disease
it is of advantage to me (l But note that cir9el.6o help), plo6ro (l hate) and pl,6ntro (l hurt,
If the agent (doer) of an action is a person, he or she is usually in the genitive after 6n6 (by, at the hands of). However, with the perfect and pluperfect passive, and after the verbal adjective in -t6oq (see pp. 193-4), the agent can be in the dative: rol.l,oi Oeponeior roiq iorpoiq eiiplvcor. (Isocrates 8.39)
hinder) take the accusative. meet, yieLd dnovt&cu
dvtull6vrrr dnrtuyldvro ouyylyvopor
Many cures have been discovered by doctors.
the measurement of difference:
I
| | meet
)
nel"d(or
elrro
101a)
taller by a head
.
porp@ dprotog (Plato, Laws 729d) by far the best
piov 6i (vo0v) o0toig dv8pdorv eil.ov ii6q. (Thucydides 2.90) They had already taken one ship with its men and all. dno66o0or pofl,opor tdv dvov dytov oirtoiot toiq rov0ql"iotg. (Aristophanes, Wasp s 169 -7 0) I want to take this donkey and sell it, pack-saddle and all. for the use of the dative in expressions of time and place,
pp. 131-3.
the dative is used with a number of prepositions (see pp. 56-9).
I obey I serve, am subject to I trust I pardon I advise
6oul"e6ro
,ItOTTD(D
ouyyryvrirorco noporv6ro
.
I associate with I approach I yield
obel, serue, tn$t, pardon, advise neiOopot
note the idiomatic use of the dative plural with o0t6q (usually without the article) in such expressions as:
see
po1106ro
dp6orcro erlvo6or
pdlopat
dpa1.l.6 pe l.i0org. (Lysias 3.8) He hit me with stones.
tfl re
help, injure
similarit!, eEnlity and their opposites dorrtr 6por6q eipt dvrivtr6q eipr np6nei pot
I
| | am like
)
I am unlike, opposite to
it
is fitting for me
note also lpdopor with the dative have sexual intercourse with.
:
I use, experience, treat, deal with,
|
I zz 1 t'lornt,
adjectives and pronouns
I The dual In Greek, nouns representing a pair of people or things can adopt special forms, known as the dual. Adjectives and verbs may agree and thus be in the dual as well, or they may be in the plural. This number is not included in the accidence section of this Grammar, but it is explained in an appendix on pp. 232-3. I Practice sentences Tlanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 o0r 6p06q eioqyf , eioqyo6pevog rffg tdrv rol"l"6rv 66(nq Eeiv flp0q rppovd(erv. (Plato, Cnro 48a) 2 @qoe6q trv'flpdprlrev e1q o'dptrpddv; (Euripides, Hippolytus 379) 3 rceivouq 6i rl,oior €upqopQ re1pr1p6voug. (Euripides, Medea 347) 4 oirov6pou d1o0o0 6otrv e0 oireiv tdv 6ouro0 oirov. (Xenophon, Oeconomtcus 1.2)
5 6
rar' 6ra t6v te vo0v td r'dppot' ei. (Sophocles, Oedipus l\trannus 377) virrlq te tetulflrnpev rni ocorqpiog. (Xenophon, Edtrcation of C4rus
7
4.1.2) petri8og pil,otor ooior ( = ooiq) oflg e0npo(io6. @uripides, Orestes
tug),dg
4s0)
8
oi ilotepov ilf
9
The slave gave the snake to Cleopatra by (i.e., using) a trick. and am trying to save you. | have been wounded by an enemy like you. Since I am so wise (: of such wisdom), I love the boy's soul. I, being a woman, am much wiser than all men. Whose country have I come to, my companions? The Greeks will make Cyrus king. The queen heard the messenger but could not understand his words.
10 | love you,Cleopatra, 1
1
12 13
l4
15 16
Accidence
I z+ I rn" definite article
Nouns
The definite article 6
f1
16
| 25
|
Nouns
the
I First declension
m.
Stems in
-q, -a and -d
honour,
f.
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
- first declension
6
n
TO
t6v
rnv
TO
toO
rng
TOt)
r@
rrl
TO)
plural nom. acc. oen
o1
(I,t
t0
rorig r6rv
r0g
Ng,
rdrv
T(DV
dat.
roig
toig
toig
Note
The definite article provides a good guide to most of the endings of first and second declension nouns and adjectives.
sea,
f.
land,
f
.
judge,
m.
young man, m.
singulat
nom. acc. ile n. dat.
rtp-t rip-(v
06l"otr-o 06l,otr-ov
lrilp-ov
rili-nq rip-n
0ol"dtr-11q
Xrbp-dS
0oldtt-r1
xop-g
rip-oi
0dl"att-or 0crl,ritt-dg
1,6rp-or
0al"atr-6rv 0o1"6rt-org
lrop-6rv lrbp-org
xrUJp-a
rprt-qq rprt-qv rcprt-o0 Kprr-T
veovi-dq
rprr-ai rprr-6g rprr-drv rprr-oiq
vedvi-or
vedvi-dv vedvi-ou v€ovr-g
plural
rlom. acc. gen. dat.
rrp-6.g
rip-6rv
rip-atq
Xop-ctg
veavi-og vsdvr-d)v vedvi-org
l{ote
t 2
in the nom. singular of feminine nouns is kept in all cases of the singular. -tr (usually long) in the nom. singular after e , r or p is kept in all cases of the -r1
singular.
5
changes to 11 in the gen. and dat. only. All first declension nouns have plural endings -o1, -dE, -6rv, -org. 'fhe vocative of first declension feminine nouns is the same as the nominative. Masculine nouns ending in -tr1g and -dq have vocative singulars in -to and -d respectively, e.g. rprtri, vedvid. Proper nouns endings in -d6qg and -i6q6 have vocatives in -ri6r1 and -i6q, e.g. Mrl.trdSq. The vocative plural is always identical
6
with the nominative plural. Most first declension nouns are feminine. Masculine nouns are obvious from their meaning and from the special form of their nom. and gen. singular.
3 -c (usually short) in the nom. singular after any other letter
4
I
ZO ;
ttornt
- second declension
Nouns
Stems in -o
m.
Stems in -ro
gift,
n.
mind,
m.
temple, m.
bone, n.
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
singular
1,61-o9 l,6y-ov 1"61-ou l6y-qr
66p-ov 66lp-ov 66p-ou 6r6p-e
(v6-og) vo0v (v6-ov) voO (v6-ou) v@ (v6-qr)
l.6y-or l.6y-oug 1"61-ov l.6y-otg
66:p-o 66rp-o drilp-rov 8cirp-org
voi
vo0g
6oro0v (6orri-ov) doro0v (6ot6-ov) 6oto0 (6ot6-ou) 6orrir (6ot6-rp)
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
(v6-or)
vo0g
(v6-ouq)
(v6-ov) voig (v6-oq) vdlv
dord (6o16-o) 6otd (6ot€-o) 6o'tdrv (6ot6-rov)
6orotg (dor6-orq)
nom. acc. gen. dat.
Note
ilote
1 Vocatives of second declension masculine nouns ending in -oq have the ending -e in the singular, e.g. 6 dvOprone.
2
In neuter nouns, the nominative, vocative and accusative are always the same and
in the plural they end in -o.
3
Be careful to distinguish second declension nouns in -oq from third declension neuter nouns such as y6voq (race), dpoq (mountain), reiloq (wall), etc.
EI
ve-
ve-cbv ve-cb
ve-d)
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
2
nI
I Attic declension
I Second declension word,
- Attic declensio
A certain number of common feminine nouns decline like l.6yo6. These include:
i BiBl,oq f yvri0o6 f, iirerpoq d vfloog { v6oog f1 6669 f1 nl.ivOog t Viqoq
book
jaw mainland, terra firma island disease road, way
brick pebble, vote
I
vs-d) va-rirg
ve-rirv
ve-6q
In tragedy, the Doric form vd6g (temple) is likely to be used. Other words in this declension are l,erirq, m. (peopleJ and l"oytbq, m. (hare).
Zl I
I Za ; ruoun. - third declension
Nouns
- third declension
I ZO
Third declension Gonsonant stems (-K,
-or
Consonant stems (-p,
(neuter), -vt)
guard, m.
body, n.
old man, m.
q6)"o(
odlpo
16prov
96l.or-o
odltrro
y6povr-o
gril,or-o6
orirpor-oq
y6povt-oq
orirpor-r
y6povr-t
nom. acc. gen.
gril.or-eg gril,or-og qul,rir-rov
o(Dpor-0 o
dat.
q61,oIr(v)
orirpoot(v)
Consonant stems
nom. acc. gen. dat.
Yrpovr-€€ y6povr-oq yep6vr-rov y6pouot(v)
Fnrcop
yDvTl
Zebg
pr'1top-o
yuvoir-o
Ai-o
prltop-oq
yuvorr-69
Ar-66
pfrop-r
yDv(r1K-1
Ar-i
(-p, -6)
nom. acc.
prlrop-eg
yuvcrtr-eg
prltop-og
8en.
p11t6p-rov
yuvo?r-og yuvorr-6rv
dat.
pflrop-ot(v)
yuvor(i(v)
Note
man, m.
father, m.
hope, f.
dvrtp dv6po
norTlp
dl,nig
nati'.pa
dlni6-o
dv6p6q
narp6g
dvdpi
narpi
6l.ni6-og dl.ni6-r
dv6peg dv8pcg dv8pdrv
?roTeprg
nartpaq
6l,ni6-eq 6l"ni6-oq
nat6prov
dlni6-cov
dv6pdor(v)
notpdor(v)
dlnior(v)
I
plural
In order to identify the stem of nouns of the third declension with consonant it is important to learn their genitive singular. The stern can be found by taking off the final -oq of the genitive; and the following endings are added to the stem: in the singular, acc. -o, gen. -og, dat. -r; in the plural, nom. -tq, acc. -oq, gen. -ov, dat. -or (see next note); neuter pl. nom. & acc. -o. 'lo accommodate the -or ending of the dative plural, changes often have to be rnade for reasons of euphony. So from dprog, dproto6 (love) we have dat. pl. dpo:ot (r is omitted); and from 1,6
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
Zeus, m.
plural
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
woman, f.
speaker, m. singulat
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
-r, -u (F))
2
3 4 5
6
nooi(v).
7 (d Z.;itgis classified
as a noun with a consonant stem because originally there was a consonant called a digamma (f) after the e. This letter, pronounced like w, dropped out of the Attic alphabet. (b) The following forms of Z$q are frequently met in tragedy: Ziv-a (acc.), Zrv-69 (gen.), Znv-i (dat.).
I
| :O ; ttount
- third declension
Stems in -r, -D,
city,
Nouns
-rl)
Contracted foms
city, n.
king, m.
n6),tg
oo'Tl)
poorl"eriq
n6l,rv
doru
Boorl.6o
n6l,eroq
doreorg
Boorl"6cuq
n6l"er
doter
Baorl"ei
n6l,erq
dou'1
Boorl,rlq (later Boorl"eiq)
n61,erg
dotrl
Boorl"6og
n61"eov
dorecov
Bcrorl"6rov
n6l.eor(v)
doteot(v)
Booil,eOor(v)
f
.
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
ox,
cou
c.
lrregular stem
ship,
f
.
son, m.
16v-og y6v-og y6v-oug (e-og)
rplnp-ne tpt4p-r1 (e-a) tpttlp-oug (e-og) rprtlp-et (e-r)
f
.
Demosthenes, m.
nom. acc. gen. dat.
y6v-er (e-r)
Aqpoo06v-qq Arlpoo0riv-q Aqpoo06v-ouq Ar1poo06v-er
rlom. acc. gen. rlat.
y6v-q (e-o) yfv-q (e-a) yev-dlv (e-orv)
tprqp-rov (e-rov)
y6v-eo'r(v)
tprrlp-eor(v)
tprfp-erg (e-eg) rprflp-e4 (e-oq)
l{ote yi;voq and rprfprlg observe the rules of contraction. The uncontracted endings are given in brackets but are not used in Attic.
I
2 Il is extremely
singular Po0g
vo0g
po0v
vn0v
ui6v
Fo-6s
ve-rilq
po-i
vq-1
ul6oq or uioO uiet or ui@
P6-eS
Bo-rirv
vn-eq vo0g ve-d)v
pouoi(v)
vauoi(v)
ut6g
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
trireme,
plural
Stems in -oD, -on
nom. acc. gen. dat.
race, n. singular
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
- third declension I ef I
Fo0g
uieig or uioi uieiq or uio6g ut6cov or uidrv ui6or(v) or uiotg
important to distinguish between the third declension neuter nouns cnding in -oq and the second declension masculine nouns with the same ending. 3 Vocative singulars (where different from the nominative): n6i,r, pcorl,e0, Bo0, vuO, ui6, Aqp6o0eveg. 4 With the declension of Demosthenes compare: Ileprr),ffq (Pericles), voc. Ilr:pirl,erq, acc. fIeprrl,6d, gen. fIeprrl,6ouq, dat. fleprrl"et. lo:rpdrqg (Socrates) rleclines like Aqpoo06v4q. t)istinguish between these -4q names and the first declension names ending in
6
Note:
f. f.
(shame), singular: voc. oi6cbg, acc. ai66r, gen. oi6o06, dat. ol6oi. (persuasion), singular: voc. ner0oi, acc. ner0cir, gen. nerOo0q, dat. narOoi. tporg, m. (heroJ, singular: voc. iiproq, acc. iipcua or iipco, gen. iiporog, dat. iiprrri or iiprp; plural: nom. fiproeg or iiprrrg, voc. flproeq or flpcoq, acc. iipcoag or iiproq, gen. flprirorv, dat. iipcoor(v). $ro€, f. (dawn), follows the Attic declension (vsd)E, p. 27) except that its accusative is 5ro (not Eruv). The Ionic declension of flrirE, f . (dawn) will be met in Homer: acc. {rir, gen. {o0q, dat. floi (like ot8rbqJ. ai6drg,
fie106,
I SZ ; nOlectives -
Adjectives
iirsVsecond declension
Stems in -s and -o
Adjectives
ypioeoq Fi
oog6g
contracted
golden
singular
-4 and -o wlse
m.
nom. acc.
lpDo-oOq (e-og)
XpDo-n (6-a)
lpDo-o0v
lpuo-flv
1p0o-o0v (e-ov) 1p0o-o0v
ge n.
1p0o-o0 ,(p00-0
rp00-ng
lpDo-o0
xpDo-ff
?(pDo-0
dat.
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
firsUsecond declension | 33
m.
rsVsecond dec lension Stems in
-
-
plural oorp-69
ooq-n
oorp-6v
oorp-6v
oog-11v
oo
ootp-oO
ooq-Rq
oog-o0
ooq-@
oo9-n
ooq-0 ooq-o oog-ri
nom. acc.
IpDo-or
26p0o-ai
1p0o-oOq
lpuo-dq
ge n.
26p0o-drv
lpDo-6rv
IpDo-o lpDo-& lpDo-dlv
dat.
lpDo-oiq
Xpuo-o?q
1pOo-oiq
plural nom. acc. gen.
oo9-o1
oo9-(x1
ooq-oriq oog-drv
ooq-09 oog-drv
dat.
oog-oig
oog-aiq
oog-dlv
l{ote Most contracted adjectives ending in -6og follow the same pattern, e.g. rinl"6o6 (single): rinl,o0q (6-oq), dnl.i (6-tn), dnl"o0v (6-ov).
oo
Stems in -o (two teminations) Stems in
-d and -o
d6rrog
giLtog friendly
unTusf
m.&f. ringular
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
qii,r-oq
qrl.i-o
rpil,r-ov
rprl,i-av
grl.i-ou
grl.i-q
9rl,i-og
gil.r-ov gil.r-ov grl.i-ou
9tl,i-g
9rl,i-qr
gil,r-or
gil.r-or
rpil.r-o
rprl,i-ouq tprl,i-rov
qrl"i-og
gil,r-c
grl"i-olv
grli-or6
grl,i-org
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
nom. acc. gen. dat. plural
nom. acc. gcn
dat.
d6rr-oq
dOrrc-ov
d6rr-ov
ddrr-ov
d6ir-ou d6ir-rp
d6rr-or d6ir-oug
d6rx-o
d6rr-o
&6ir-rov
d6[r-org
Note Note
1 AII middle and passive participles ending in -pevoq decline like oo
Compound adjectives (i.e. adjectives beginning with a preposition or some other prefix, including tn(v)- (not)) do not usually have a separate feminine ending, e.g. d-X"oyog (irrational), dni-orlpog fremarkable), eti-(evo6 (hospitable), rol"]"i-virog (gloriously tri u mphant). They are called two-termination adjectives.
|
pA
; nOjectives
- Attic declension
Attic declension
Adjectives
-
firsUsecond declension | 35
lrregular firsVsecond declension adjectives
Stems in -or (two terminations)
lrregular stem
ilueaq gracious
ptyag great
m.&f. singular
nom. acc. ge n. dat.
singular
tle-oq
1l,e-orv
T),e-ov
'il"e-rov
ptyae
peldl,-11
p€T0
priyov peydl,-ou
peydl,-11v
ptya
peydl"-qq
pey6l.-ou
pey
peyril.-r1
pey6l.-rp
peydl.-or peydl.-ou6
peyril,-or
pey61"-a
pe1dtr -oq
peydl.-o
'il,e-cDv
n0m. acc. gen.
peydl,-cov
peyril,-cov
pey6l.-ov
1l.e-rpg
dat.
pe1d1,-orq
peydl.-org
pey6l.-org
"il"e-
fl.e-c'r
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
nom. acc. gen. dat. plural
'il,e-rp
tl.e-o
tl,e-rog
"il,e-a
Note
l{ote
1 In the poets, the form tl"cog -ov (graciousJ will be met.
'l'he masculine vocative singular is peydl,e.
2
n),baoc"
(full) has three terminations, the feminine in -o. lrregular stem nolubc, much, many m. singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
no1,6q
nol.l"4
nol,6
rol"6v nol,loO
no1.l.f1v
no1,6
nol,l.fig
nol,l,o0
notr"l.@
rol,1,fr
rol"1"@
nol,tr"oi
nol,l"oi
no?.'),a
nol.l,orig nol,l,6rv
no}"),6.9
no1r?"6.
nol,ldrv
nol,l,oig
rol,l,oig
no1,l.6v nol"tr oiq
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat. Note
Both nol,6g and p6yaq start in the masculine and neuter as third declension but after the accusative change to the second.
|
I
SO
1
nOlectives
- third dectension
Adjectives
Third declension
M
Stems in -u
iilu10ip, true
ei5
f16rig sweet
m.&f.
m.&f.
nom. d1.10-r1q rdrl"40-6q acc. tiX,n0-rl dl,r10-6q gen. dl"ri0-o0q dat. d1"40-ei
singular
eiigprov e$tppov-o
e0qpov e0gpov
eiitppov-oq eiirppov+
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
eii
eilppov-o
eiigpov-crE
eUgpov-o e0tpp5v-ov eikppoor(v)
ilote
fi6-eio
f16-6v f16-6oq
{6-eiov
i6-i)
f6-eioq
f16-6og
{6-ei
f6-eiq
f16-ei
nom. acc. Ben. dat.
{6-eiq
f1E-eior f15-eidq
f16-6o
f16-eig
f6-6rov
f16-erdrv
f16-6o f15-6rov
i6-6or(v)
f16-eiorq
{6-6or(v)
Note
1 The vocative singular forms are
and e0gpov. Distinguish these from participles in -orv [p. 38). comparatives like pei(cov have alternative (contracted) endings in the m. & f. acc. singular and the nom. and acc. plural. These shorter forms were more common in everyday speech than in literature. dl,r106g
l)istinguish this type from participles in -u6, e.g. nom. 6errv6q.6errv0oc, i'ir:rrviv; acc. 6errv6vro, 6errv0oav, 6srrv6v, etc. (eresent active participle of
iir:irvupr I show). Stems in
dat.
tu?,dg unhappy
pei(rrrv greater, bigger
(alternative forms)
m.
m.&f.
m.&f.
n.
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
pei(rov
pei(ov-o
pei(ov pei(ov
pei(ro
pei(ov-og
dat.
pei(ov-eq pei(ov-og
t6l,ov tdl.av
r6)uaq
rd?rorv-a
tril,ov-o
rdl,orv-ov
td)"av-oq
rol,aiv-11g
tril,av-r
roloiv-q
nom. acc.
rdl"ov-eg tril"ov-oq
td)torv-ot rol.oiv-dq
r,61"av-a
ge n.
roldv-cov
tol,orv-drv
tol,riv-rov
dat.
rdl.ao(v)
tol,oiv-orq
rdl,aor(v)
tdl,ov-oq rril"ov-r
plutal
pei(ov-r
plural nom. acc. gen.
-v
Stems in -ov contracted (two terminations)
singular nom. acc. gen.
fl6-6
i6-6q
plural
nom. dl.qO-eiq dl.q0-n acc. dl"q0-eig dl,n0-Tl gen. dl.qO-drv dat. dtrr10-6or(v)
2 3
mixed declension | 37
ixed firsVthird declension
Stems in -so; stems in -ov uncontracted (two terminations)
singular
-
pei(ov-o pei(ov-o
per(6v-otv
pei(oor(v)
pei(oug pei(ouq
pei(o pe
i(rr
tdl,ov-o
|
I aa
; Rolectives
-
Adjectives
mixed declension
Stems in
Stems in
-ovr
nfl.q all, every
m.
m.
singular
6r-6vto
tK-oDo0 tK-oDoov
6r-6vtoq
eK-oDong
tK-ov tK-ov 6r-6vtoq
6r-6vn
eK-oDoT
AK-OVT1
6r-6vteg 6r-6vtoq
€r-o0ocr
tK-ovr('
6r-o6odg 6r-ouodrv rK-oDoolg
IK-OVTO
6r-
6r-6vtcov dr-oOor(v)
ao6ov sfopping (present
active partictple
tK-ovTov
6r-o0or(v)
nde
n0('-0
n0v
n6vr-a
,I00-0v
fiov
novt-6q
rdo-ng
rIovT-oq
novt-i
,Ioo-T
,I0,vt-l
ndvt-eq ndvr-og ndvr-rov ndor(v)
n0o-or
nav^c-a
710o-og
nclvT-a
noo-drv n&o-orq
ndvt-rov nOor(v)
nobonq having stopped @orist active participle of nuttol I
m.
f.
nor5-ov
710D-oDo(I
nc6-ovro nof-ovtoq na6-ovtr
troD-oDoov
nori-ovteq no6-ovrng nou-6vtrov no6-ouor(v)
fioD-oDo0t fi(lD-oDooq
TtoD-ovTo
NOD-ODOCDV
,IoD-ovTov
n0m. acc. gen.
noD-oDo0rg
rori-ouor(v)
dat.
m.
n.
singular
nou-orioqq nou-orioq
fioD-ov fi(ID-ov noD-ovroq
n0D-ovtl
nom. acc. gen. dat.
no6o-oq
ltoDo-oo'o
nobo-ovro
ttoDo-(Io.o,v
noOo-ov
nc6o-cvn
'IoDo-oorlq 710uo-ooTJ
'loDo-ov noDo-ovroq tt0Do-0vrr
rrquo-ovT€q
fioDo-oo01
7r0Do-ovTo
no6o-ovrog nouo-dvtrov no6o-dor(v)
nauo-ilodg nouo-dodrv
no6o-ovto
7roD6-0o016
no6o-dor(v)
no6o-ovrog
plural
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
nom. acc. gen. dat.
of nuta I stop)
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
nom. acc. gen. dat. plulal
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
mixed declension | 39
-avr
Errhv willing
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
-
no6-ovro
l{ote
1 The present participle of eipi (l aml is rj5v, o0oo, dv. Declined exactly like nsforv with the exception of the nom. sg. masculine are all
2
participles in -ouq, e.g. nom. 6r6ofq,616o0oo,6r66v; acc. 6r66wo, 6r6o0oov, 6r66v G)resent active participle of 6i6ropr I give).
nouo-dvtrov
stop)
|
| +O
; ROlectives
-
Stems in
mixed declension
Adjectives
-evt
Stems in
yapierc, graceful
acc. gen. dat.
26opievr-r
lopievt-eq lopievt-og ;6apr6vr-rov lopieor(v)
lopieoo-or loprrloo-dg ;6apreoo-6rv lopr6oo-otq
lopievt-o lopievt-og
lopiev 2gopiev
lopievr-og x{rplevr-l
lopievt-a lopievt-o lcrpr6vr-rov 26opieor(v)
ilote
roDoeriq
having been stopped (aorist passive participle of nabo
I
stop)
m. singulal
nouo0eiq nouo06vr-o nouo06vr-og nouo06vt-t
nouoOeio-o nouo0eio-ov nouo0eio-qq nouo0eio-11
nouo06v nouo06v nauo06w-oq nouo06vt-r
nouo06vt-eq ncuo06w-og nouo06vr-cov ncuo0eior(v)
nc,uoOe?o-cr nouo0eio-dg nouo0ero-6rv rouoOeio-org
nouo06vt-o nouo06vt-a
plulal
nom. acc. gen. dat.
m.
f.
nenourrbq
1I€7!0DKD1-O
n.
nom.
acc. gen. dat.
,It,IoDKOq
nenour6r-o nenour6r-oq nencur6t-r
nenourui-ov nenourui-dq nenourui-q
nenour6q
nenour6t-eg nenaur6t-aq nenour6t-o:v nenour6or(v)
nenourui-or nenourui-dg nenclurur-6)v nenourui-org
nenour6r-o nenour6r-s
nenou*6t-og nercrur6t-t
plural
This is a very rare class of adjectives in Attic. The voc. sg. masculine is lapiev.
nom. acc. gen. dat.
-ot
singular
lopieoo-o lcpieoo-ov lopr6oo-qq x0pl€oo-T
lopierg
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
mixed declension | 41
,refiouKcbq having stopped @erfect active pafticiple of nabo
singular
nom.
-
nouo06vt-cov
nouo0eior(v)
nom. acc. gen. dat.
nenour6t-cDv
nenour6or(v)
I
stop)
|
I az ; comparison of adjectives
Comparison of adjectives | 43
Comparison of adjectives
Adjectives ending in -rov and some others have -6o-tepog and -6o-torog:
The comparative ('more ...') is most commonly formed by adding -rspoq, -tr6pd, -tepov to the masculine stem.
2gapirrg graceful e6voug kindly
The superlative ('most ...') is most commonly formed by adding -rorog, -mnr'1, -rurov to the masculine stem.
A few very common words have comparative -tcov (declining like pei(rov, p. 36) and superlative -rotog (declining like oo
estpprov
When the adjective ends in -og, the vowel before -tepog and -totog etc. is o if the preceding syllable is heavy and ro if the preceding syllable is light. (A syllable is light if it contains a short vowel which is followed by no more than one consonant. Otherwise it is heavy.)t
6elvriq
strange
Comparative
$uperlative
6erv6-tepoq stranger
6erv6-rotoq strangest,
kindly
i66S sweet
wise
oogcil-tepog
Fop6g heavy
popf-repog
pop6-rorog
ri?,q0{q
dl,1106o-repoq
d1,r106o-toroq
pel.riv-repoq
peX.dv-toroq
The following drop the omicron: yep(rr-lrpoq yrpor6g old na)'nr6q ancient ncrl,ol-tepog
yepoi-roroq nol,oi-totog
But &ploioq (ancient), &voyroloq (necessary), p6porog (firm), 8ircotog (just), onou8uioq (serious) follow the most common rule, e.g. &p1ot6tepoq, etc. Note the following irregular formations in -oi-tepoq and -oi-totog:
flou1og np@o€
1opr6o-totoq
f16-lcov
e0vorio-rotoq (or1
olol-roroq
C210p6q
hostile painful
610-ir,rv
d10-roroq
dl.y-i
dl,y-totog
di,lervriq
o-6)
I lrregular comparisons Gomparative
Superlative
good
dpeivolv
dproroq (ability, excellence) B6l,ttotog (virtuel rpdnotog (force, superiority)
peldrrrv rpairtrrrv r(oKog
bad
rorirov leipcov inferior
rdrroto6 leiprotoq
r1'cr,av weaker, inferior
iirroro (adverb) /easf
xo),69
beautiful
ral.),irov
rril,l,roroq
pfyoq
great
pei(rov
pr4yrotoq
pixprig
little
pirp6tepo6
pTrp6rc,toq
pelov 6?"iyoq
Iittle
dl,iyroroq
few
B),6trorv smaller, fewer
dl.tipotog
no?'66
much
nl,eiov, nl"6rrrv
nl"eiotog
quiet
flouloi-repog
f1ou16oi-rotog
prfi6rcq
easy
F,irov
pQotog
early
npQor-repog
rcprpci-roroq
l,0769
fast
06rtov
rdyrorog
peoai-te poq
peooi-tarog.
iooi-tepog
looi-rotog
rprl.oi-repog
grl"oi-tatoq
p6ooq middle equal lcog qil.og friendly
:
ii5-rotog
disgraceful oiol-irov
dyc069
p6?'og black
1opr6o-repog e0vo0o-tepog
oo
But note: true
e0gpov6o-rorog
oiolp6g
very strange
oo
eigpov6o-repoq
|
rpil,-roroq
I The two exceptions are rev6g (empty) and or6voq (narrowJ which have their comparatives and superlatives rev6repoq, rev6totoq and otev6tepog, otev6toroq. See also 12 onp.220.
Adverbs | 45
| +a
;
EI
Not" the following which only have a comparative and superlative:
corp.rison of adjectives
[n].noioq near (poetic)l
np6repoq former
npinroq first
borepoq later
ilotoroq latest, last nl,qoroitotog nearest
n?rqowir,epog nearer
Adverbs The adverbial ending of most adjectives is -org, and so adverbs are usually derived from adjectives by adding -rog to the stem. As a rule of thumb, the form of adverbs can be found by changing the -v of the genitive plural masculine to -q, e.g. justly 6rroirog 66roq
sweetly
ndvtcog
wholly
f
Note the following neuters (either singular or plural) used as adverbs: nol"rl, nol,l,6 p61a,,
peldl"o
p6vov
mucn
greatly (also peydl,rog) on ry
Note the following:
p6l,o r,&ya
very very much, exceedingly quickly, perhaps
dvro
ADOVC
rdtro
beneath, below
o
ivv6s
near
e0
well
Comparison of adverbs The comparative of an adverb is regularly the neuter acc. singular of the comparative adjective, and its superlative is the neuter acc. plual of the superlative adjective:
coqdrg
wisely
rayiruoq quickly
Gomparative
Superlative
oogrirtepov more wisely
ooqrirroto most wisely
Odrrov more quickly
raytora
very quickly
very much
Note also: pril"o
much
1td,)t)tov mOre
pril,roto
tt)
well
dltelov
d.prcra very well
EI
better
Remember the idiom rbg with the superlative ( = as 69raytora as quickly as possible.
-
as possible):
|
Pronouns | 47
| 46 ; Pronornt
I Reflexive pronouns
Pronouns
The reflexive pronouns (here in the masculine) are: Epaut6v (myself), oeour6v (yourself), 6our6v, oir6v (himself), irrdq o$to6g (ourselves), 6p&g or)ro6q (you rselves), Eouroirg, uito6g (themse lves). Reflexive pronouns are never found in the nominative.
I Personal pronouns l,
we
(m. f.
n.)
you
self; him, her, it, them
(m. f. n.)
m.
dyrb
ot)
air6q
o0rq
or)t6
singular
6p6, pe €poO, pou
OE
oOt6v
o0n1v
o0t6
ool)
oito0
o0tflg
o0ro0
€pot, por
oot
or)r@
o0rf
oSt@
acc. gen. dat.
ipsiq
Dpelq
3^
Dpo6
o0toi ott6g
sird
ftp0g
o0roi oStofq
iprirv ftpiv
up(Dv
o0tdrv oSroig
o0rdrv o0ro?q
oritdrv oOtoiq
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
3^ g^
Dprv
himself, herself, itself; themselves
myself; ourselves
f.
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
|
o0td
m.
f.
m.
f.
€pout6v €pouro0
€poudlv
6out6v 6outo0
€outflv
dpoutfiq
Epout@
dpoutll
€our@
6outfl
6out6 6ouro0 6outtfi
fpdq o0tofq
f1p&g o0t&q f1p6rv oOtrirv
6outo6g
tourdg
6outd
€outdrv €ouro?q
6ourdrv
toutdrv
6ouroig
6auroig
6outflq
plural
acc. gen. dat.
{pdlv o0rdlv {piv o0roiq
flpiv o0rotg
Note
ttote In all cases, oir6q can mean'self'. In the accusative, genitive and dative' it can mean
'him', 'her', 'it' and'them'.
Preceded by the article,
it means 'same'.
See
p. 145.
I Reciprocal pronoun
I Possessive pronouns dp66 -f1 -6v
my
o6q -f1 -6v
your (singular)
{p6repog -o -ov
our
6pr6tepoq -d -ov og6tepoq -d -ov To express possession
Sometimes oeour6v (which declines like dpnut6v) and frequently 6aut6v contract to oour6v and o0r6v respectively.
I
a""ri". like qi),roq
your (plural)
their own
dl"l,qi'ouq each other, one another
aecnne [ke oo
I
in the third person, the genitive of o$t6g or (if
reflexive) 6out6v is used in the singular or plural. See pp. 147 &149.
plural acc. gen.
ti&l,rlIoug t&irlrlkov
d?,1.{}.dg
dl.l.r11.o
&1.l,f1tr cov
dat.
dx.x.{r.ors
di.tr
dl"l"r1l,rov dl.l.r1l,org
{}.ors
Pronouns | 49
| 48 1 Pronorn.
I Deictic pronouns
I Interrogative and indefinite pronouns ric,
who? what? which?
lri
someone, anyone; SOme, any
m.&f.
n.
m.&f.
xig rivo
ri ri
r1g trvd
n.
The deictic pronouns o8tog, 66e (i.e. 6 + 6e) and 6re?voq, like o0t6g and dl"l"og, follow the definite article (see p. 24) and the relative pronoun (p. 50) in having the ending -o (uol -ov) in the nom. and acc. neuter singular.
singular nom. acc. qFn
dat.
m.
11
rivog or ro0
ov6q or tou
tivr or
ttvi
r@
singular
or trp
plural nom.
Trveg
T1V0
acc.
rivog
tlvo
66e fhis
o0rog fhls Tr
rlve€ trvdg
gen.
TlV(DV
rrv6v
dat.
rior(v)
ttoi(v)
rw6. rw6.
or or
6r^cu
iir"ca
ilote When dq is used in asking a question, it alwavs has an accent on its first syllable. rrg, the indefinite pronoun, is an enclitic and may or may not be accented, but it never has an accent on its first syllable (unless it gets it from another enclitic), and must follow another word. See p. 149.
nom. acc. gen. dat.
o0toq
o6rq
TODTO
66e
ii6e
t66e
to0tov to6tou
to6trlv
TODTO
r6v6e
to6tqq
toDTol)
ro06e
nlv6e rflo6e
r66e ro06e
torirqr
torltq
TODT(D
t@6e
rfi6e
r@6e
o0ror
o0tor ta6tdq
t0Dto
oi6e
TODTO
torio6e
td8e td8e
to6rcov
TODT(DV
tdrv6e
to6rorq
TODTolq
toio6e
o16e r&o6e r6v6e roioDe
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
tofroug to6trov toritorq
Note
I
Be careful not to confuse the following:
o6ror obrtri c0rr1, o0rtri
from o$tog (this, these) from oit6g (self) from 6 o0r6q (the same) 2 The gen. pl. feminine of o6ro6 is rarftrrrv. obrq,
o0rf1,
Breivog fhaf m.
f.
dreivoq rireivov dreivou
dreivrl dreivqv €reivqq dreivrl
singulal
nom. acc. gen. dat.
dreivrp
6reivo dreivo dreivou dreivrp
plural
nom. acc. gen. dat.
dreivor dreivot €reivouq dreivdg €reivov dreivcov dreivorg €reivorq
dreivo dreivo dreivcov
dreivorg
tdlv8e
toio6e
|
Conelatlves | 51
| 50 ; Pronornt
Relative pronouns
Gorrelatives
Specific relative (see p.
6q
i27)
who, which
I Correlative pronouns
f. singular nom. acc. gen.
dat.
Questionword Indefinite
6s 5v os 6fl
ii iiv f,q
6 6 o0
question)
6
rig; who?
plural nom. acc. gen.
dat.
oi obs 6v otg
ol
il
fiq
6v
it 6v
slq
olg
Notice the similarity of this pronoun to the definite article (p. 24). Observe that the relative pronoun always has an accent. Indefinite relative (see
I
6ouq
f.
n.
6ocg
nrlg
6n (6 tt)
6vtrvo
iivavo
6tt (d n)
o0trvog or 6tou rbtrvr or 6rco
rlorlvog
fitrvr
o6nvog or 6tou Qavr or 6trp
oinveg oiioavog 6vflvorv or 6r.ov ofottor(v) or 6rorq
oitrveg
dtrva or drto
&otrvog 6vttvcov
alotror(v)
6'cwa or dr,ra
drvnvov or 6rorv oiotror(v) or 6torq
t{ote Note that 6oc6 = 6q + trE. 2 6 tr can be used to avoid confusion with 6n = that or because. 3 The shorter alternative forms are rare in prose but alrnost always found in poetry.
t
some, any
n6oo6; how much? how many?
noioq; of what sort?
66e this (here) o6rog fhis dreivog fhaf
Relative (specif ic)
6q
nor6g of some
whoever,
anyone who
sort
so many rotog,
ror6o6e,
roro0rog such
The forms 16oo6 and roioq are poetic.
6ortq
which
6n6repog which of the other of two two noo6q t6ooq, toooOrog, 6oo9 as much as, of some roo6o6e quantity so much, as many as number
lndefinite relative (also indirect question)
who,
drepoq the one or
Note
plutal
nom. acc. gen. dat.
what?
or
singular
nom. acc. gen. dat.
someone,
anyone;
p. 128)
whoever, anyone who; whatever, anything which
:
rlq
which?
n6repog; which of two?
Note
l
Deictic
(direct and indirect
otog of which
sort
6n6tePoq whichever of two 6n6oog of whatever
quantity or numDer 6noioq of whatever
sort
|
I 52
Numerals | 53
| Correlatives
Numerals
I Correlative adverbs Question word Indefinite
Deictic
(direct and
lndefinite
Relative (specif ic)
relative (also indirect question)
rect question) i
nd
i
noO;
where?
fiou to where?
fiou
dvOd8e here
somewnere, anywhere
ro1 to any, place
some
n60ev;
no06v from where? from anywhere, from somewnere
n6te;' when?
ttott at some time,
Erxi there
how?
7.(Dg
somehow
where,
wherever 6e0po fo here Ereioe to there
oi to
6nor to where, to wherever
where
6v06v6e from here
60ev
6rei0ev from there
from
6n60ev
where
from where, from wherever
'c6'ce
then
oTt when
ever ndq;
6nou
ol) wnere
6n6ra when,
whenevel dr6e, oUrro(g)
thus,
in this way
rbq
how
6norq
now,
howevel
1 2 3 4 5
Cardinals
0rdinals
Advefts
one, two etc.
first, second eIc.
once, twice etc.
eig, picr, Ev
npdlr-og, -r1, -ov
iina\
66o
6e6tepoq
6is
rpeiq, tpio
tpirog
rtrcapeg, rtmapa
rtraprog
rpiq tetpdrr6
ntvre
nbpnroq
nevtdrrg
6rtog
6(rirrq
6EE
7 8 9 10 1I 12 13 L4 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 30 40 50 60
Enra
6B6opog
6ntdrrg
6rtdr
6y6oog
6rrdrrq
dwr6o
dvotog
dvrirrq
66ro
66rotoq
6erdrrq
Ev6ero
riv66rotog
6v6erdrrg
6cil6ero
6ro66ratoq
6co6errirrq
rpirog rcoi 66rotoq
roi 56ro
rtrrapaqroi 66ro
t6toptoq roi 66rotoq
tperorot6erdrrg rertapeoror6erdrrg
nevtertri8ero rirraiDero 6nraroi6ero 6rtcoroi6ers dweargiSero ekoor(v) eiroot tpeig
ntpnrograi 66rotog
nevterorDerdrrg
6rtoq
roi 66ratog roi 66rotoq 6y6ooq roi 66rarog dvoroq roi 66rarog
6rro16erdrrq
EB8opog
€ntarot8erdrrq 6rtrrrrorberdrrq
rpeig
rprifuovro
rettopdrovtc nevrf6ovtcr
€(frovto
eiroo169
eirootdq tp(toq tprdroot69 tetroporoot6g nevrqroot6g 6(qroor6q
Bwecrrot6erdrrq
eiroodrrq eiroodrrq tpig
rprdrowrirrg tettoptrrovtdrrq nevtqrovtdrrq €[16ovrtirrq
7O
€B8oprlrovro
6p6opqroot6q
6BSopqrovtdrrq
80 90
6y6orlrovro
616or'1root6g
6y6oqrovtdnq
rivevfrowc
€vevqroor6q
dvevqrovtdrrq
|
Numerals | 55
I s+ ; t'lumerats Cardinals
0rdinals
Adverbs
one, two etc.
first. second etc.
once. twice etc.
100
€rqt6v
6roroor6g
6rorowdrrg
200 300 400 500 600
6rdr6or-or, -or, -o
6rorooroor6q
6roxoordrrg
tprdr6or-ot, -or, -o terpor6or-or, -or, -o nevror6ot-ot, -ot, -o
tprdrooroot6g retporootoor69
tptdroordrrg tetporoorrirrq
nevtorcooroor6g
nevroroorcirrg
6(o16or-or, -or, -o
6(orooroor6q Entorooroot69
6loxoorrirrg 6nrotoordrrg
6rtor6or-or, -or, -o
6rrorooroot6g
drtoroordrrg
dvor6or-or, -or, -o
dvorooroor6q
6voroordrrq
26tl"t-ot, -or, -o
lil.roor6g
26tl.rdrrg
6ro1tl,r-or, -ar, -a
6ro2gil.root6g
Drolil,tdrrg
p6pr-or, -ar, -a
pDproor6g
pDprrirrg
700 €ntor6or-or, -or, -o 800 900 1,000 2,000 10,000 :11
1):
il:
ilote
I
The numbers one to four decline as follows:
56o two
elq one
m., f. & n.
i
n0m. acc. gen.
slg
lrro
plov
€v 6v
66o
6va €v6g
p1ag
6v6g
dat.
6vi
pl0
6vi
6uoiv (a dual form) 6uoiv (a dual form)
611o
The negatives of etq are o$deig and pqDeig (no one) and they decline in the same way, i.e. o06-eig, oi6e-pio, o06-6v.
rtrtapeg four
rpeiq three
m.&f.
n.
m.&f.
nom.
rpeig
rp10
acc. gen.
rpeig
rp1([
r€rrapeq t6rtopoq
$i
ill |li
dat.
n.
rbrrapa
tbrrapa
rprdrv
terrdpcov
rproi(v)
t6ttopor(v)
2
3
Cardinal numbers from 5 to 199 are indeclinable, except that in compound numbers (see below) et6, 6iro, tpeig and r|napeq are declined if they occur as distinct words; hundreds and thousands decline like the plural of gil,roq. Ordinals decline in full like oog6q, except 8eftepog which declines like qil,roq, because of its p before the -oq (see p. 32). In compound numbers, the smaller and the larger number can come either way around if they are linked with rai. Thus 24 can be eiroor roi tfttopeg or r6rropeg roi eiroor (as in'four-and-twenty'). If roi is not used, the larger number comes first: e'ixoot t6tropeq (as in 'twenty-four').
UI
popior means 'countless' or'infinite' when accented in this way (cf. p6pror = 10,000). It is found with this meaning in the singular (p0piog -d -ov).
|
| 56
| Prepositions
Prepositions | 57
with the
Prepositions The phrases not in bold are idiomatic expressions well worth noting. with the accusative
dpqi
alound, about
with the genitive concerning,
for the sake of
oi f
dp
(poetic)
iv to6rrp meanwhile
with the dative
Cv r@
concerning,
iv Ill,ritovog
fll,drtrrvo
(see
eiroor drrl
dni
on, in the time
over, for
(of time and purpose)
dg'lnrou
dg'{piv dotrv
on horseback 6ni rdrv nor6prov in the time of our
it is in our power dni roftorg
from, away from
dni nol,iv 1p6vov for a long time
drp'lnnou
d9'i56op
de'Q, de'fue
on (literally, trom)
for (i.e., to fetch)
on condition that
through, by means of
see note 1 below
6r' 6?riyou (rol,l,o0) after a short (long) time 6rd 6irqg i6vcr to go to law with
into (in poetry often €gJ eig 6on6pdv towards evening
fathers
rtrtti
down, on, over, according to, throughout
down from, down into, against
rord rdv notop6v
ror'drpd6
downstream
utterly (from top to bottom)
rord yfiv roi rard
rord rfi6 yfiq i6vor
0riluattov
to go under the earth
by land and sea
rcr'
elg rorp6v
1p6vov about that time
at the right time
Breivov tdv
rntd roirg v6poug out of, from
according to the laws
dr to6tou
xa0''El,7rti6o
after this
throughout Greece
6( ioou
ro0'f1p6pdv
equally
from day to day
on these conditions
(see
warer
dni pd1lv tfir6vor to go out for battle
elq rprdrooiouq up to 300
a vowel)
upon, on
dni rdv lnnov
on account of
€( (before
ol
to, onto, against,
p. 17)
onto a horse
up, throughout
horseback
0x,
(gen.)
at Plato's (house)
ot (literally, those around) Plato
o,lo
nop6wr
at present
tor the sake of (poetic)
instead of
sls
in, at
dv
about 20 years
6r.dr
with the dative
ol lowers
dp
ovo
accusative with the genitive
(f.6yoq) xotd Otl,irnou (a speech) against Philip
p. 179)
|
Prepositions | 59
| 58 | Prepositions with the
accusative with the genitive
pet& after
with, together with
with the accusative
with the dative among (poetic)
with the genitive
llom (a person)
oirv 0e@ with god's help common in poetry; rare in Attic prose by the side of, with
beside, beyond,
{lr6p
contlary to, duling nopd rQ poorl.ei with the king (in Attic prose only of
nopd tdv poor?r6d dlyerv
to bring before the
irn6
beyond 66voprv power to under, under, beyond, to
above, on behalf of
r5rdp beyond one's
6ndp tfiq'Ei"?"66oq for the sake of Greece
about or
persons)
king
vurrd nightfall see note 3 below at
nop' 6l"ov tdv piov d4
nopd roi4 v6poug contrary to the laws
tiLorv rJnd rdrv
ird
nolepiov I was captured by the
66v6p
under a tree
6n'AOqvoiorg subject to the Athenians
to (of people) rirq'Ayrv to Agis
around, about
concerning
(of place and time) nepi 6B6op{rovto
repi rollo0 (6l"iyou,
concelning, around
ilote 1 In compound verbs, 6rd adds the rneaning of either'thoroughly' or'right through'
o06evdg) noreioOot to consider of great (little, no) importance
or'parting'.
2
In compound verbs, petri tends to add the meaning of either 'after' ('follow after', 'send after ( - for)') or'sharing' or'changing'. 3 In compound verbs, $n6 adds the meaning of either'under' or'gradually' or'in
oi nepi 'Hprixl.errov Heraclitus and his school/associates
rpo
under, subject to
enemv
during my whole life
about 70
by (the agent)
at (of time)
tnd
napd rdv norop6v along the river
fiEpr
with the dative (in company) with
c6vl
perd rc0ro after these things see note 2 below
no,pdt to the plesence of,
|
an underhand wav'. before, in front of (of place and timeJ, rather than
np6q
to, towards, against
in the name of, by
close by, near, in addition to
npdq 26dprv
rpdq tdlv 0edlv
with a view to
by the gods!
npd6 ro6tor6 beside these things
pleasing
npdg pidv forcibly npdg ra0ro with reference to these things
I This word, both as a separate preposition and as part of a compound (e.9. ouv-riyor (l bring together)) was spelt (6v in old Attic, but o6v appeared in the fifth century BC and became usual towards the end of it. Thucydides is the only Attic prose writer who consistently uses the (. It is the usual spelling in tragedy.
verbs | 61
aorist tense - this tense simply tells us that a single event happened in the past, e.g. 'I did this'. It is often used with the force of the English pluperfect. Outside the aorist indicative and its participles (but see p.137), i.e. in imperatives, infinitives, subjunctives and optatives, the aorist does not tell us the time at which the action happened.l It tells us that it was a single event, and the event can take place in the present and the future as well as the past. Thus d1,06 (aorist imperative) 6e0po means 'Come here (and be quick about it) !' The imperfect tense, which usually suggests that the action should be seen as a continuing process, makes a helpful contrast with this use of the aorist to convev a single crisp event. We refer to the distinction between ways of expressing events and actions as aspect. pluperfect tense - this tense is rarely used in subordinate time clauses. The aorist is preferred, e.g. €nei eiof1l"Oopev : when we had come in. The pluperfect is in fact rarely used altogether. future perfect tense - 'I shall have stopped', 'you will have stopped', etc. This tense is very rarely found. finite verb - a verb in a tense with a personal ending.
ffiYnH Most Greek verbs alter their endings according to a single pattern. We give the verb ncrrio (l stop), no6opor (l cease) as our example of this. If you master this verb you will be able to understand and form any part of the vast majority of verbs. There are a significant number of irregular verbs and we give the most frequently used of these in the tables of grammar and in the lists of principal parts. We divide the principal parts into two sections. The 'top 101' are the commonest and the effort of learning them will prove worthwhile. The second list can be used for reference. In the following tables, the numbers 1, 2 and 3 refer to persons. In the singular 1 is 'l', 2 is 'you' and 3 is 'he', 'she' or 'it'. In the plural, 1 is 'we', 2 is 'you' and 3 is 'they'. For agreement of persons, see 7 on
p.2I9. There are three voices in Greek, active, middle and passive. middle voice generally tells us that the subject performs an upon himself or herself, or for personal benefit, e.g. no6co : (something), nariopor : I stop myself, i.e. I come to a stop,
|
indicative - this term tells us that a finite verb is not in the subjunctive, optative (see below) or imperative. It is usually making a statement or asking a question.
The action I stop I cease.
the subjunctive and optative - the various uses of the subjunctive and optative will become increasingly evident as this grammar is studied. However, it is worth remarking that a mood which is certainly not the indicative is used in English. The following citations are taken from 'The Oxford English Grammar' (published in 1996J:
Sometimes, however, verbs have an active meaning but only middle (or middle and passive) forms, e.g. Boril.opot (l wish). We call such verbs deponent. If they do make use of passive as well as middle
forms, the passive forms will usually be confined to the aorist. The middle and the passive have the same forms as each other except in the future and the aorist. We give only the future and aorist tenses under the middle in the tables, referring readers to the passive table for the other tenses.
lsrael insists that it remain in charge on the borders ...
lf they decide that it's necessary, then so be it. ... you can teach him if need be. ... more customers are demanding that financial services be tailored to their needs. He said Sony would not object even if Columbia were to make a movie
Almost all of the tenses we use when talking about Greek verbs are used in English grammar. But note the following: imperfect tense - this tense usually expresses continuous or repeated or incomplete action in the past, e.g. 'l was stopping ...'. It can also have the meaning of 'I tried to ...' (conative, from the Latin'conor' (l try)).
critical of the late Emoeror Hirohito. Words such as 'may', 'might', 'would', 'should' and 'could' can also be helpful when translating the Greek subjunctive and optative.
'
However, note the use of the infinitive in indirect statement and the optative in indirect statement and indirect questions, both of them in 'the tense actually used' (see pp. 155 & 164).
'|
OZ I VerUs in or
- active
I Verbs in
Verbs in
co
-
active | 63
co
Active na,6ro / sfop indicative
imperative
su bj
unctive
1 2 3
pl1 2
3 Infinitiye
no6-co
nou-(r)
fioD-o11.[r
fioD-olg
na6-eq
noD-e
noD-ng
ns6-er
ttoD-€To)
rroD-Tl
no6-ete no6-ete no6-ouor(v) nou-6vtotv
fioD-(l)pev no6-r1re no6-
nou-olpev
1 2 3 pl 1 2 3 Infinitive:
pl
n0D-o1T€
fi0D-olav
nc6-etv Pailiciple: no6-cov, -oDoo, -ov (see p. 38)
I 2 3 I 2 3
lnfinltive:
subjunctive
optative
n5-ncrur-cr
ne-ncr5r-cr
n€-n0uK-otpl
n6-nour-og
,te-flouK-rlg
nr-noDK-o1€
r6-nour-e(v)
ne-nofr-1
ne-no6r-opev ne-na$r-arr-
ne-no6r-copev ne-ncfr-orpev
ne-nofr-dor(v)
ne-no0r-oor(v) ne-nofr-otev
'It-fioDK-ol
ne-no6r-r1te
ne-ncur-6vor Pailiciple: ne-nour-rbg, -uio, -69 (see p.
ne-no6r-orre
41)
pluperlect
d-nou-ov
sg
E-nav-eg 6-nou-e(v)
pl
d-no6-opev t-na6-e:,e d-nou-ov
future sg
sg
'I0D-o1
no6-opev
impedect
sg1 2 3 pl I 2 3
imperative
porfect
present sg
indicative
optative
I 2 3 I 2 3
d-ne-no6r-q
d-ne-nofr-qq d-ne-no6x-er(v)
6-re-nofr-apev C-ne-nork-ere d-ne-nofK-Eoov
l{oto na6o-ro
no6o-orpr no6o-org no6o-or
na6o-e4 natio-er no6o-opev
nu6o-ere
noDo-olprv nc6o-otte
norio-ouor(v)
fioDo-ot€v
no6o-erv Participle: no6o-rov, -oDoo, -ov (see p. 38)
lst aorist (for 2nd aorist,
see
p.69)
sg1 2 3 pl 1 2 3 Infinitiye:
noOo-or Pailiciple: no6o-dg, -doo, -cv (see p. 39)
d-nouo-o d-nouo-oq
fioDo-ov
ttouo-(D noDo-I|q
d-nouo-e(v)
?roD6-0To
rouo-q
6-ro6o-opev 6-no6o-ote d-nouo-ov
fioDo-oTt
,l0Do-o]r6v no6o-1te no6o-coor(v)
n0Do-ovTctv
fioDo-orpl
nofo-erag or -orq no0o-ere(v) or -or ,roDo-orprv ncr5o-orte
nsfo-erovor-orrv
I 2 3
4
All past indicatives add €- as a prefix (the augment) except for the perfect, which rt'duplicates. (ln fact, the perfect does not count as a past tense at all since it (lenotes a present state.) For details, see p. 67. Forms of the verb which are not indicative do not have an augment. There is no future subjunctive. 'the perfect subjunctive and optative are rare.
|
I
O+ ; veros in ro
-
Verbs in ar
passive
-
passive | 65
|
Passive nauopor I am stopped ind icative
imperative
su bj u nct
ive
present sg
1 2 3
pl1 a
3
nari-opor no,b-et
or
-r7
no6-etor nou-6pe0a nori-eo0e ncrrl-ovrcr
fioD-opor
noD-orpnv
no6-ou
71(ID-11
norS-oro
nau-6o0co
nari-11ror
nc6-orro
nou-rirpe0cr nori-r'1o0e
nou-oipe0o norl-oro0e
nori-rovtor
nc6-orvto
lror]-eo0e nou-6o0rov
nl
'l
d-na6-eto r4-nau-6pe0a
5
d-na6-ovro
pl1 z
nouoorlo-opor ncruo0rlo-€t or -n nauoOrlo-etcn
nouoOrlo-oipqv nouoO4o-oro
nouoOqo-6peOc nauo011o-eo0e
nouoOqo-oipeOc ncruo0rlo-oro0e nouoO4o-orvro
ncuo0rlo-orto
nouoOqo-ovtcn Infinitive:
sg1 6-no6o-0qv 2 6-no6o-0r1q norio-04a 3 d-na6o-0r1 nouo-011tro pl 1 d-no6o-0qpev 2 €-no6o-01re no6o-0r1re 3 C-norio-04oov nouo-06vr
I I I
I 2 3
I 2 3 pl I 2 3 .'g
Infinitive;
nauo0rlo-eoOcr Participle; nouo0rlo-6pev-oq, -rl, -ov
optative
ne-nori-peOo n6-nou-o0e
nt-nars-o9e
ne-no6-o0ov
n6-ncru-vrar
nenoup6vor nenoup6vor
nenoupfvor
6pev frte
6or(v)
nenaupfvog etqv neno,up6voq eiqq
nenoup6voq eirl nenoup6vot elqpev
neroup6vot eiqre nsnoup6vor eiev
d-ne-ncrri-;lqv
d-n6-nou-oo d-n6-nau-ro d-ne-nori-pe0o d-n6-nou-o0e d-n6-ncru-vro
ne-no6o-opor ne-na6o-er or -n ne-no6o-etor
fir-,I('Do,-orprlv fit-tt0Do-o10
ne-ncruo-6pe0o
ne-nouo-oipeOo ne-no6o-oro0s ne-ncuio-orvto
ne-na6o-eo0e
ne-ns6o-ovtor
fie-fi0,Do-o1To
ne-na6o-eo0or Participle: ne-ncuo-6pev-og, -n, -ov
Note
aorist
I
nctive
luture perfect
future
sg1 2 3
grl
1 2 3 pl I 2 3
d-nor5-ou
d-norl-eo0e
u
perfect (for verbs with consonant stems, see p. 68) n6-nou-pot nenoup6vog dr ';g I 2 nt-nur-out n6-nou-oo nenoup6voq frq 3 n6-nou-tar ne-norl-oO
.,g
6-ncru-6pqv
z
su bj
pluperfect
imperfect
1 2 3
imperative
lillinitive: ne-no6-o0or Participle: ne-rou-p6v-og, -r1, -ov
Intinitive: no6-aoOor Participle: nau-opev-oq, -11, -ov
sg
indicative
optative
ncruo-0dr
nouo-0eiqv
nouo-0fl9
nouo-0eiqq nouo-0eiq
nouo-0f ncuo-06rpev
nauo-0flre nouo-0dlor(v)
Intinitive: nouo-0flvor Participle: nauo-Oei6, -0sioo, -06v (see p. 40)
nouo-Oeipev nouo-Oeite nouo-0eiev
1 Many verbs do not add -o- before the -0r1oopor and -0r'1v endings of the future aorist passive, e.g. 1"6ro (l loose) - l,u-0f1oopar, d-1,6-0qv; nroteiot (l trust) 2 3
ntoreu-0r1oopor, d-nrore6-0qv. Indeed, the aorist passive of norio is frequently found in the form dncr60qv. See p. 68. The perfect subjunctive and optative, and the future perfect optative are rare. The 1 pl. ending -peOtr often appears as -peoOo in epic and tragedy for metrical reasons.
4
and
Note the altemative forms for eiqpev, eiqre and eiev in the perfect optative: eipev, eire and eiqocv.
I
OO ; verUs
in o
-
middle
The augment and reduplication | 67
The augment expressing time, and reduplication Middfe no6opar I stop myselt indicative
imperative
subjunctive
optative
present, imperfect, pertect, pluperfect and future perfect
You can tell the past tenses of the indicative because, apart from the perfect (a special case since it is not really a past tense - see p. xiv), they all have an 'augment' (= something added at the startJ in all three voices: (a) If the verb begins with a consonant, this is the letter 6-, e.g. d-ncuov (imperfect), d-nouoo (aorist). (b) If the verb begins with a vowel, the vowel will lengthen as follows:
pages
0 g, 01, at
luture
oD,
sgl 2 3 pl ,i: I
l,
1 2 3
lnfi nitive:
nofo-opor nai:o-er or -q no0o-etor
1 2 3 pl I 2 3
;
'I
Infinitiye:
rl n
tll
lu
ftoDo-olpqv noDo-olo
t
no6o-orto
i
o
(D
a
ro6o-eo0e
nouo-o(peOo no6o-oro0e
ot
noOo-ovtor
no6o-otvro
nauo-6pe0o
ntr6o-eo0nr Participle: nauo-6pev-og, -q, -ov
lst aorist (for 2nd aorist, see pp. 69-70) sg
vowel with augment
original vowel
for these tenses, the middle is identical to the passive given on the previous two
6-nouo-ripqv
t-na6o-a d-ro6o-oto
aoOo-cr nouo-doOo
€-nouo-dpeOo
6-norio-oo0e 6-no6o-ovto
noDo-olprlv
ro6o-11
ttoDo-010
no6o-r1ror
,Iouo-olto
nc6o-qo0e
nouo-oipeOo no6o-aro0e
no6o-rovtsr
nc6o-crvro
na6o-oo0or Participle: rouo-6pev-oq, -q, -ov
I
Note
Many middle verbs become passive in form (but not in meaning) in the aorist. Note the following: po6lopor -+ dBoul,q0qv I wish 66opor -+ C6ef10qv I beg -+ lioO1v I find pleasure in fidopor prpvforopor -+ 6pvf1o0qv I remember 6rol,6lopor -r 6rel,610qv I converse oiopor -+ rlf0qv I think goB6opor -+ EgoBf1fuv I fear I grow angry dpyi(opor -+ rbplio0qv
e1
I
l)
'l'he augment is added to the uncompounded verb, not its prefix. Thus the aorist of drnoncbco (l stop) is dn-6nouoa (the augment dislodging the o of dno-J. (.otnpare:
roron6pnco no6o-ropor
ncuo-
nofo-ao0e nouo-6o0ov
rl, rarely
dmBoul,e6co
lhll
-)
-i
aor. K0T-6nslr\ro
aor. dr-epo6l,euoo
I send down I plot against
note:
Cyrcprinrco
drnor6e6or neprpoivco
--r aor. 6v-6rpuryo
-) -t
aor. d(-enoi6euoo impf. nepr-6Borvov
I hide in I educate
I go around (the r of nept remains) npopoivro -+ impf. npo-6Borvov or rpotiporvov I go forward (a) The perfect 'reduplicates' (see p. xv) if the verb begins with a consonant, rn.rking use of the vowel e. Thus: norior -+ pf. r6-nouro l,6co -+ pf. l€-l,uro (b) 0, q, reduplicate with t, n, r, e.g., 06ro -+ pf. r6-0urc
I stop
I release
l
-+ pf. r6-
I sacrifice I flee I rejoice
(c) If the verb begins with a vowel, the same lengthening process is followed as with the augment (see 1 (b) above). The pluperfect both has an augment and reduplicates. When the pluperfect is formed from the perfect of a verb beginning with a vowel, no further change is made.
|
I oa I fn.
Verbs with a 2nd aorist | 69
perfect and aorist passive
with a 2nd aorist
I Forming the aorist passive
I Verbs
Unfortunately, no general rule can be formulated as to whether -o- is added before the -01v of aorist passive endings. The forms €norioOrlv and €nori0qv are both found. Two rules should be remembered: 1 Contracted verbs add -0r1v (not -o0r1v) after lengthening their vowel, e.g.
Many very common verbs which form all their other tenses regularly like norko form those based on the aorist stem in a different way. This is the 2nd aorist and is often distinguished by having an aorist stem which is shorter than the present stem. In the tables of principal parts, a verb which lirrms a 2nd aorist will have the ending -ov or -6pqv in the aorist column. While the formation is different, the meaning is the same. Compare Iinglish, where the 'regular' past tense is formed with -ed, as 'walked' from 'walk'. The Greek 2nd aorist can be compared with the past tense of verbs lil
d
2 If there is a -o- before the -0r1v, it is almost certain that it will be there in the future passive (before the -Or1oopor) as well.
I Forming the perfect passive The perfect passive of verbs with stems ending in vowels is formed like that of nor5or (see p. 65J, but when the stem ends in a consonant, almost all the regular endings have to be changed for reasons of sound. Study of the perfect passives of l"einor (l leave) and npdtt
lrol example, the aorist of oip6ro (l take) is eil"ov, from the stem
pn.sent for all the other forms. The aorist passive is formed from its own sr.l)arate stem.
Active ),opBdva I take
fipaxxoJ
perfect passive (indicative)
1 2 3 pl I 2 3
sg
l"6l"erppor l"6l,e
ryar
l"6l,ernrcrr
ind icative
ntnpdypar n6npd(or
n6npdrtor
l.el.eippreOa )"6l"erg0e
nenpdypeOcr
l"el.srpp6voreioi(v)
nenpdyprivor eioi(v)
n|npuy9e
lnfinitive: l,el,ei
pd10or Participle: nenpdlpL6vo6
the forms of the perfect passive are made up of the perfect passive participle and a part of eipi (l am), the participle must agree in number and gender with the subject of the verb, e.g. oi yuvoireg ),el"erpp6vor eioiv. The women have been left behind.
imperative
su bj u nct
ive
optative
aorist ',U
pl
l 2 3
l,dB-
l.dB-orpr
E-XaB-tg
1.oB-6
I,iF-nq
1.6B-orq
d-?,cB-e
l.oB-6ror
I,i0-n
)"riB-or
1 2 3
d-)"riB-opev E-)'&B-erc d-l.oB-ov
l"
l"riB-11re
l"oB-6vrov
l.dB-
l"riB-orpev l.dB-orre l.dB-orev
Inlinitive:
EI wn.."
61"-.
t)1. English'go' beside'went'. 'l'he forms are given in full below, but note that the endings are identical to those of the regular imperfect for the indicative and to those of the
d-l.crB-ov
}"aB-eiv Participle: l"cB-cirv, -o0oo, -6v (accentuation like 6r
l{ote Nole also the following common imperatives: ein6 (say!), dX06 (come!),
iiji; (see!).
eipf
(find!),
|
| 70
| VerOs with a 2nd aorist
Root aorists | 71 I
Middfe l"crpBdvopcn / take for myself i
nd
i
cative
imperative
I Root aorists
su bj u nctive
optative
l.dB-olpor
l.oB-oipqv
r,i9-n
l.6B-oro LdB-orto
aorist
sg1 d-l"oB-6pr1v 2 d-l"dB-ou l,aB-o0 3 6-LdB-ero l"oB-6o0o pl 1 d-l"op-6pe0cr 2 d-)d,B-eo0e l"dB-eo0e 3 6-),dB-ovto [aB-6o0cov Infinitive:
LdB-4ror
Some verbs form the aorist by just adding endings onto the root of the verb. For example, the active aorists of pcriv
paiva
I go
indicative
),op-r6pe0o }"dB-qo0e
1,oB-oipe0o
l.dB-oro0e
aorist
),rip-orvrot
l,riporvro
.;g
troB-6o0or Participle: l"ap-6pev-og, -4, -ov
1
dPnv
2
dFnq
imperative
9tor 0ttrtr
d0n Note
The accents on 2nd aorist verb forms can be different from those on other verbs. For the details, see 4 on p. 226.
pl
I
2 3
su bj
u
nctive
Bd)
Boiqv
Fts
Foiqq
pn
0oin
p6rpev
poipev
Boite
dBqpev Efu'pe
Fnre
Frtte
dBqoov
Brivtorv
Bdror(v)
lnflnltiye:
Bfivor
Participle: Bdg,
optative
poiev
pdoo, pdv (stem Bdvr)
yryv6oKo I get to know i
nd
icative
imperative
subju nctive
optative
aonsl ',g
pl
I
rYvov
yvd)
Tvolnv
2 3
eTVoq
pdr0r
Yvoq
lvoitlg
dpco
yvrirtro
Yv0
yvoir'1
1 dyvorpev 2 Eyvam 3 dyvrrroov
Intinitive:
yvdrpev
Tvorp€v
YV0)Te
yvdre
yv6vtorv
yvrior(v)
yvoire yvoiev
yvdrvor Participle: yvo6q, yvo0oa, p6v (stem p6vr-)
Note
I
Other verbs which have root aorists are: Presenl Aodst
d),ioxopor pr6co -6r6p&oror -66ro
€&l"olv dBic'rv
be captured (used as passive ofoip6co) live
-66pav
run
-66uv
enter, put on
Note: Ltst conttnues onD. 72
I z2 ; Root aorists
Contracted verbs | 73
dorqv doplv
iorrlpr
:
aor. I stood (intr.) extinguish g0dvar d
d
6guv
d
I grew, I was by
flor4v
nature
I grew, produced, made to grow
dornoo I did set up, made stand fsee p. 84) rar66Dv rnr660oa I sank I made sink, caused to sink But g0tivro (l antlcipate X (acc.) in doing, act or be first) is both transitive and intransitive in both its aorist forms (drpOnv and drpOaoa). And 816o is intransitive in both of its aorist forms (dBirov and dpirooo). I stood, was
standing
I Contracted verbs Contracted verbs are verbs whose present stem ends in a vowel (-o-, -e-, -o-J, e.g. ttpdro, rprl,6
I verbs e followed by e becomes er. a followed by o becomes ou. e followed by a long vowel or diphthong disappears.
o verbs o followed by a long vowel becomes
|
I z+
Contracted verbs in
; Contracted verbs in o
c I ZS I
I Contracted verbs in a Middle/Passive trp6rpor
Active tipdr (a'ur) I honour
indicative imperative subjunctive 1
2 3 pl I 2 3
lnfinitive:
tip-dr
rip-Qq dp-g
rip-Qq rip-Q flp-oprv rip-6pev rip-&re tip-dre tlp-Ote rip-dror(v) rtp-rilvtcov rip-rirol(v) rip-dv
tip-c tip-6rro
rip-dr
rtp-tf4v np-61q rip-6q rlp-Qpev rip-@re rip-@ev
Participle: rTp-drv, -6lo0, -6rv
sg
I
tip-drpor
2 3 pl i 2 3
tip-do0e titrr-drvtor
Infinitive:
rip-do0or
tilt-Q ritrr-dtor rTp-
imperfect
imperfect
1 z^ra J pl 1 2 3
sg
sg
optative
present
present sg
indicative imperative subjunctive
optative
d-tip-rov E-rr$-aq r-Tlp-O
d-tip-6lpev E-rIp-dre d-rfp-rrrv
pl
I 2 3
1 2 3
tlp-drpot rip-Q tip-dror tip-cirpeOo rlp-do0e tip-0o0e tip-6o0cov tlp-drvtor rip-6 tip-6o0ro
tip-rfiprlv rip-@o rip-@ro
ttp-rfpe0o
dp-{lo0e rip-@vro
Participle: rlp-rirpev-oq, -r1, -ov
d-tip-
t-rip-6 d-tip-&ro d-dp-cirpeOo
€-dp-&o0e
6-tip-6vto
Note
I 2
Note that the present infinitive active of these verbs usually ends in -dv. The r of the regular infinitive ending -erv (originally -eev) is not found in contracted verbs. Some c verbs (including [(dor] (l live) and lpriopar (l use)) contract to n instead of d when o is followed by e or 11, e.g.(flv (to live], 1pflo0or (to use].
I Other tenses For their future, aorist and perfect, contracted verbs lengthen their vowel before the ending, with o becoming q. The forms of the first person singular in these tenses are: passive active middle future ttp4-oro ripfl-oopor tiprl-Of1oopor aorist d-tfpq-oo €-tipq-oripqv i-tipr1-Oqv perfect re-ttpq-ro re-tipr1-por re-ripq-pot
I z6
1
Contracted verbs in s
Contracted verbs
in
ellll
I Contracted verbs in e Active
(6a) I
indicative
Middle/Passive rprl,o0por
love
imperative
subj
u
nctive
optative
indicative
present sg
rprl,-dr
grl,-ei
gil.-er grl,-eircr
tprl"-o0pev
z
tprl"-eire
qrl"-eire
3
rpil.-rir
grl,-oiqv
qlr-nq 91r-{
qrl,-drpev
rprL-oipev
qil.-ffre q*-drot(v)
I 2 3 pl I 2 3
sg
grl.-oi11
qrI-oiev
Infinitive:
Infinitive:
imperfect
sg1 2 3
i
subjunctive
optative
present
1 2 3
pl1
pl
imperative
rpilr-ei
or -i1
-eiror
grl.-o0
qlx-n
tprl,-oio
rprl.-eio0co
rprl"-fltor
tprl,-otto
rprl.-ofpeOo
tprl,-cbpe0a
gr1"-oipe0a
gt)"-eio0e
grl,-fio0e
grl"-oio0e
qr},-o0vtor
grl,-eio0r,rv
grL-6rvror
grl,-oivro
rprl,-eio0or Participle: 9r),-o6pev-og, -q, -ov
imperfect
I 2 3
€-tpil.-o6pr1v d-qrl,-oO d-
I
€-qtl"-eite
d-prl.-obpe0a d-qrl.-eio'0e
d-
ri-qtl,-o0vto
d-rpi}"-ouv
sg
E-tpi),-aq
€-qil-er
1 2 3
6-qrl.-o0pev
yrl
.lt
.i
Note stems in e are only one syllable long, e.g. nl,6-o (I sailJ,6ei (it is necessary), they contract only when the ending added to the stem begins with Then they contract to er. Thus the present tense of n1"6ro is:
1 When
Active nl,6rrr / sail ind icat ive
imperative
subj unctive
optative
e.
I Other tenses l"or their future, aorist and perfect, contracted verbs lengthen their vowel before the ending, with e becoming q. The forms of the first person singular in these tenses are: passive active middle
uture aorist f
present sg
pl
1 2 3 I 2 3
Infinitive:
n)"6.a
nl.6orpr [N.8.)
nl.eiq (6-erg)
nl"ei
nl.6qq
nl.6orq
nl.ei (6-er)
nXeito
rl.6q
rl.6or
nl,eite nl,e6vtrov
nl,6copev nl,6r1re n),6roor(v)
nl.6orpev nl"6orre nl,6orev
nl.6co
nl6opev n),eire (t-erc) nl,6ouor(v)
nl,eiv
Participle: nl,6-orv, -oDoo, -ov
perfect
qrl.(-oro d-qil.q-oo ne-gil,r1-ro
rprl,fl-oopor
d-qrl,q-odprlv
ne-tpil.q-par
ne-gil,q-par
I za
; contracted verbs in
Contracted verbs in
o
o I ZO I
I Contracted verbs in o Middfe/Passive
Active 6ql.6r (6a) I show indicative
imperative
su bj u
nctive
1 2 3
pl1 2
6q1"-6 6q?"-oiq
6ql.-oi Dr1l.-obpev
6nl-o0te
6(1,-ou ErlI-o6trrr
6q1,-o0te
Enl.-6)
6ql,-oiqv
6111.-o?g
6ql.-oi11g
6ql.-oi
6111"-oit1
6ql,-6rpev
6ql,-oipev 6ql.-oire 6ql.-oiev
6r11.-6lte
6r11,-o0or(v) 6r11.-ofvt
imperfect sg
1 2 3
pl1 Z
3
unctive
optative
imperative
su bj
6ql,-drpor 6ql.-o?
6ql"-oipqv
64tu-o0 6111"-o6o0r,r
6nI-6rtot
6111"-otto
present
plesent sg
indicative
optative
6qlo0pur I am shown
d-6f1.-ouv d-6t11"-ouq
€-6q).-ou d-6q1.-o0pev
6-5ril.-o0te d-6i1.-ouv
I 6ql.-o0por 2 6rll.-oi 3 6111.-o0ror pl 1 6ql.-o0pe0o 2 6ql.-o0o0e 3 6ql.-o0vror
sg
Infi
6q1,-oio
6ql.-rirpe0c
6qtu-oipeOo
6r11,-o0o0e
6q1.-6ro0e
6q1,-oio0e
6ql,-o6o0rov
5ql.-drvror
6111"-otvro
nitive: 6111.-o0o0or Participle: 6r11"-ofpev-oq,
-1, -ov
imperfect sg
I 2 3
pll
6-6q1.-o6pqv d-6q1.-o0 d-6qtr"-o0to
a
6-6q1,-oripe0o 6-6q1.-o0o0e
5
d-6111.-o0vto
Note
Note that the present infinitive active of these verbs ends in -oov' The r of the regular infinitive ending -erv (originally -eevJ is not found in contracted verbs.
I Other tenses I,br their future, aorist and perfect, contracted verbs lengthen their vowel before the ending, with o becoming ro. The forms of the first person singular in these tenses are:
middle active Passive uture 6q1.6-oco 6ql,r6-oopor 6ql.o-0{oopot aorist d-6f 1,ro-oo d-6ql.o>oripqv 6-6n1,6-0qv
f
perfect
6e-6f11.co-ro
6e-6f1l.orpor
6e-6r1l.ro-pot
Verbs in
I ao ; veros in pr
pr
I Verbs in
ind icative
imperative
riOqpr
ti0er
ri0r'19
tifuo(v)
tr06tro
subjunctive
I 2 3 pl 1 2 3
sg
optative
rr0dr
tr0eiqv
Tloflq
tt0eilg
tt0fl
tr0eirl
tr06lpev
n0-eipev or -eiqpev
trOflte
trO-e?re
rr06lor(v)
trO-eiev or -ei4oov
tiOepev 'ci9erc
a06oor(v)
tiOete rrOrivrrov
Intinitive:
tr06vcr
n0eig, tr0eioo, n06v (stem tt06vt-)
Participler
or -eiqr,e
imperfect
sg1 2 3 pl 1 2 3
I
subj
riOeoor
ri0eoo
tr06rpor Tt0fl
ri0etcr
rr06o0ro
tr0flrcrt
u
optative
plesent
1 2 3
pl
nctive
imperative
indicative
present
sg1 2 3
I 81
Passive ri0epar I am put, placed
- d0qpr,
d04pr I put, place
Active
pr
Infinitive:
sg1 2 3
€tiOer dtiOepev
rr06pe0o riOxo9e
ti0eo0e o06o0ov
ri0evror d0eo0or
tr0rirpe0c trOflo0e
tr0drwot
tr0eipqv tr0sio rr0etto n0eipeOcr
u0sio0e tr0eivto
Participle: trO6pev-oq, -q, -ov
imperfect
pl
driOqv Eci0eq
ti0epor
1 2 3
dn06pqv
Eri9too driOero
dtr06pe0o dtiOeo0e
6ti0evro
l{ote
Eri0trt
'the passive of the future and aorist are as follows: teO{oopor, Br60r1v. For the perfect passive, re?por is used: see p. 92.
dri0eoov
aorist
sg1 2 3 pl
1 2 3
Infinitive:
ed)
0eiqv
dOrlrcq
o6s
enq
0eir1q
d0nre(v)
06tro
et
0ei4
06lpev
0eipev or 0eiqpev 0aire or Oei4te 0e?ev or 0eiqoov
d0qra
dOepav
E9ere dOeoov,
0eivor
dOrlrov
06te
Oflte
06vrcov
0dror(v)
Participle: 0ei6. Oeioc. 06v (stem 06vr-)
Note
1 In the active, the future, perfect and pluperfect stem 01-: Ofoco, r60qro, Bre0{rq.
tenses are formed regularly from a
Middle tiOepar I put, place indicative
imperative
subjunctive
optative
06lpor err
0e(pqv 0eio
Ofltor
0eito
0r6peOo
Ofio0a
0eipe0o 0eio0e
06rvtor
0eiwo
aorist
1 d06pqv 2 dOou 3 d0ero pl 1 d06pe0o 2 E9eo9e 3 dOevto
sg
Infinitiye:
0o0 06o0cr
06o0e 06o0rov
06o0ar Participle: 06pev-o5, -t1, -ov
ilote As with all verbs, the middle is only distinct from the passive in the future and aorist tenses. The future middle is formed regularly from a stem 0r1-: Of1oopor.
Verbs in
I sz ; verbs in pr Passive 'lepar / am sent
Iqpr
indicative
Active
tqpr
imperative
subjunctive
optative
present
z
3 pl f 2 ^ 5
Infinitiye:
fqp,
1(r)
file
lEl
1Tq
iqor(v)
rtTo
iere
ltTA
l^
i6vtrov
r0o1(v,
i6vor
Participle:
teiqv ieiqq
3^
rrl
iei4
t^
ieipev or te(qpev ieite or ierrlte ieiev or ieirloov
r(Dprv
iepev
4^
TTIT€
irnor(v)
ieig, teioo, i6v (stem i6vtJ
impertect sg
pl
1 z
'f.qv
J
1€1
I 2 3
imperative
subjunctive
optative
t^
ieipqv
plesent
/ send
indicative
sg1
pr I aa I
sg1 lepor 2 ieoat 3 tetor pl 1 i6pe0o 2 teoOe 3 'ievror
l^
rn 3^ rnTor
i6o0ro
g^
lSlO
lSlto
"ieo0e
iflo0a
ieipe0o teio0e
i6o0
idrvtor
ieivto
irirpe0o
Infinitive: Teo0or Participle: i6pev-oq,
-1, -ov
imperfect
sgl 2 3 pl1 2 3
rerq
tepev
r(Dpor
tsoo
i6pqv
ieoo teto t6peOa "ieoOe
fevto
ilote
ixrx
In the passive, the future, aorist, perfect and pluperfect are formed as follows:
teoov
-60f1oopor, -ei0qv, -eipor, -elpr1v.
aorist
sgl 2 3 pl
1 2 3
lnfinitive:
-firo -firoE
rE
-ire(v)
f;tco
etpev elre eioov
Er,e Svtrov
elvor
Participle: elg,
eioo, 6v (stem
Middte iepar / send
6
eiqv
fis fi
siqg
drpev
elpev or eirlpev
aorist
flte
eite or ehlre elev or eiqoov
sgl
dlot(v)
ind icative
€iTl
2
dvtj pl
Note
I
A hyphen before a word indicates that it is usually or always found only in
2
compound forms. In the active, the future and perfect tenses are formed as follows: -iioco, -eho.
1 2 3
Infinitive:
imperative
eiprlv eToo
OD
elto
6o0co
eipe0o
eio0e etvto
6o0e Eo0olv
subjunctive
optative
6rpor
elpqv
fi firor
eio
ri5pe0o
e1peOc
fio0e
eto0e
drvtor
etvro
etro
5o0or Participle: ffpev-og, -t1, -ov
Note As
with all verbs, the middle is distinct from the passive only in the future and aorist
tenses; the future middle is fioopot.
Verbs in
loropor I am made to stand, am
Passive
rorqpr
imperative
indicative
Active
lotrlpt
imperative
optative
present / make stand, set up (tr.)
sgl 2 3 pl
lorrlpr
1OT(D
iorr1;
lorn
loqor(v)
10TOT(D
1 io'topev 2 iorate 3 iordor(v)
Infinitive:
iordvar
Participle:
iotore
iotdwrov
iotaiqv
rorTg lOrrl
iotoirlq
iotdrpev
iot-oipev or -o[r1trrev lor-oire or -aiqte iot-oiev or -oiqoov
lotffte iotdlo(v)
iotoir'1
ior66, iotdoc, lotdv
imperlect I was setting up (tr.)
sgf 2 3 pl 1 2 3
ioraoat iototor
lotovtor
sg1 2 3
I 2 3
aorist / was set up sg 1 dor60qv etc. regularly as inorio0qv
Middfe
ornoopev ocrloqte otrlooor(v)
ornoolpev
indicative
otrloote
Note
This (transitive) lst aorist active is formed regularly like dncuoa, but we give it in full to contrast with dorrlv, the intransitive 2nd aorist, given on p. 86. The future is formed regularly: otforo (l shall set up (tr.)).
iotaivto
ota0r1oopor etc. regularly as ncruoOfloopor
orflo-eroq or -orq orqo-ere(v) or -or
otrlodq, odlodoo, otffoov
Participle:
1
orrlorl
orflool
toto0o0e
iordrvror
foravro
otqodtro
Infinitive:
iotoipe0a
iotflo0e
iorripe0o
orno(r1pl
otrlo-erov or -or€v
iorcirpe0a
iorac9x
or4or16
otqodvtorv
lotoito
iomoo
oTnoo
dotqoov
iotfltor
fororo
otfloov
oTTlootTa
iorrioOro
iotdpqv
sg
ioripare
ioraipqv iotoio
imperfect I was being set up
future / shall be set up
dotfloopev
iorfr
lorcro0e iordo0rov
iorare
'iorooov
iorcoo
iotdpe0o
iorao9t.
fotopev
1 2 3
pl
lotcroOor Participle: iotdpev-og, -1, -ov
iotr'1
dott'1oe(v)
iotdrpor
Infinitive:
iorrlc"
3
optative
lotopor
pl
iotqv
aorist / did set up (tr.) sgl dotqoo 2 dorqoaq
subjunctive
1 2 3 pl 1 2 3
sg
subjunctive
set up
present / am set up
I make stand, set up ftr.)
ind icative
pl ! ryl
lotopor
/ sef up for myself (lr.)
imperative
aorist / did set up for myself (tr.) sg I dorqodprlv
subjunctive
optative
otflocopor
2 3 pl 1 2 3
dorrloro
orfloor
otr1o11
orqoorprlv orqoolo
dot{ooro
orqodoOco
otflorltor
oflloorro
otrlorbpeOa
ot{oqoOe
orrlooipe0c, otqooro0e
otflocovtar
orfloorvto
Infinitive:
orf ooo0or
6otrlodpe0o
€orioooOe ot4oooOe dorfoovto otqodo0cov Participle:
orqodpev-oq, -1, -ov
The middle of the transitive present and imperfect is identical to the passive forms.
I ao
; verbs in
Verbs in
pr
Middfe iorcrpat I am (in the process ofl standing up
Active Eo'rqra I stand (inlr.) indicative
imperative
subjunctive
Infinitive:
dordvor
Participle:
6oto0r Eordtco dotote dotdvr
elotrlrq
pl1
f;otopev Sorore
2
6otoirlv
6otdr Gotflg
€otoi4g
6otfl
6oroir1
6otdrpev
8ot-oipev or -oiqpev riot-atte or -ai1rx 6or-oiev or -cinoov
€otflte 6otdlot(v)
6or-rig, -6:oo, -6q (stem €otcot-)
elotflrer
lotopor ioraoan iotstor
Inftnitive:
iotao0ar
iotooo lordoOol
iottriprlv
totff
iotfftor
lotoio ioroito
iorrirpe0o
ioroipe0o
iotoo0e
iorfro0e
iotoio0e
lordoOcov
iordrvtot
iorqivto
lotdpe0o
iotso0e lotovror
lotdrpor
Participle: totdpev-oq, -r1, -ov
iotdprlv
iciaco lototo to'tdpe0o fotooOe
forovto
tuture / shall stand up
2 Eonlg 3 dotq
otfl0r
1 dotqpev 2 Eorqre 3 docloov
oTIre
orfivor
optative
lnperfect I was (in the process of) standing up
eiod6qq
aorist / sfood (root aorist) sg 1 dotrlv
tnfinitive:
s81 2 3 pl I 2 3
sgl 2 3 pl 1 2 3
6otooov
pl
subjunctive
prosent / am (in the process of) standing up
pluperfect I had stood up, i.e. I was standing
sg1 2 3
imperative
indicative
optative
perfect / have stood up, i.e. I am standing, I stand
sg1 Eotqro 2 Hotqrcq 3 dotqre pl 1 fiotopev 2 Eo'care 3 6or0or(v)
pr I az I
orqro
ordvtcov
Participle: ordq,
OTCt)
oT(Ilrlv
orllg ora
otoiqg
otoiq
or6pav orffre ot6or(v)
orolpev or oTo1r1ptv
oroire or otoiqte oraiev or otairloov
or0oo, ordv
l{ote These three tenses indicate a state of standing.
6orrllo
:
sgl 2 3 pl 1 2 3
or(oopor
orloorprlv
crfoet orottloq or{oetor
ortlooro
oqo6pe0tr
otqooipeOo
orfloeoOe
otflooro0e
Infinitive:
orf oeoont
ot{oorto
or{ootvto
orrloovror Participle:
otrlo6pav-oq, -q, -ov
Note
I shall stand.
'fhese three tenses indicate the p1gecsg of standing up.
Verbs in
I ae 1 verns in pr
Active 6i6rrlpt I give imperative
pl
1 2 3
Infinitive:
5i6opr 6i5roq
6i6on(v) 6i6opev 6i6ore 6r66oor(v)
6i6ou 6r66tor
6i6ote 6r66vrrov
1 2 3 pl 1 2 3
6i6opor 6i6oosr
6r6dlpor
6r6oipr1v
6i6ooo
6r6@
6r6oio
6i6oror
6r66o0ro
6rDdrror
6r6oito
6r6cilpe0o
6r56r
6r6oiqv
6r6Qq
66oiqg
6t6@
6r6oir'1
.igl 2 3 pl I 2 3
6r6dlpev 6rSdrte 5r66ror(v)
6r6-o?pev or -oi4pev
ldhltive: 6i6oo0or Participte: 6166pev-o6, -q, -ov
616-oite or -oirlre 616-oiev or -oiqoov
lmportect
subjunctive
optative
6r66vor Participle: 616o69, 616o0oo, 6r66v (stem 6r66vr-)
imperfect sg
imperative
su
bjunctive
optative
ind icative pr0sent
plesent
sgl 2 3
I AO
Passive 6i6opcrt I am given
6i6copr,
indicative
pr
i6i6ouv d6i6ouq 66i6ou
€6i6opev g6i6ore
1 2 3 pl I 2 3 sg
6i0oo0e
6i6oo0e
6rDdro0e
6r6oipa0o 6r6oio0e
6i6ovtot
6r66o0rov
6r66rwor
6r6oivto
6r66pe0o
€6r66pqv €6i6ooo d6i6oto d6r66pe0a d6i6oo0e
d6i6ovto
l{oto In the passive, the future, aorist, perfect and pluperfect are as follows: 6o0{oopor, rititi()qv, 666opar, d6e66p1v.
i6i6ooav
aorist sg
pl
I 2 3 1 2 3
Infinitive:
docoro
d8rorog d6rore(v)
66q 66tco
d8opev
d6ore
56te
66ooov, ddrorav 66vrcov
66
5oi11v
6,0q
6oiqg
60
6oin
6dlpev 66rte 6dror(v)
8oipev or 8oiqpev 6oire or 8oiqte 6oiev or 6oiqoov
6o0vor Participle: 6o6q, 6o0oo, 66v (stem 66vrJ
I{ote In the active, the future, perfect and pluperfect tenses are formed regularly from a stem 6(D-: 6r6oco, 666roro, d6s6(6rn.
Middfe 8iSopat I give, offer ind
icative
imperative
su
bjunctive
optative
rorist
I 2 3 pl 1 2 3
sg
Infinitive:
d66pqv d6ou
d6oro d66pe0o d6oo0e
ddovto
6o0 66o0ol
66o0e 66o0cov
66rpcu
6oipqv
60
6oto
6dltor
6oito
6rilpe0a 66ro0e
0oipeOo
8drvtor
6oivto
0oio0e
66o0or Participle: 66pev-og, -q, -ov
t{ote As with all verbs, the middle is only different in form from the passive in the future ,rnd aorist tenses; the future middle is formed regularly from a stem 6or-: 6ri:oopor.
I
| 90
1
Verbs in
veros in pr
Passive 8eirvupor I am shown
6eirvSpr
imperative
subjunctive
optative
1 8eirvupor 2 Seirvuoor 6eirvuoo 6errv6o0co 3 8eirvutor pl 1 6errv6pe0o 2 6eirvuo0e 6airvuo0e 3 8eirvuvror 6errv6o0(ov
6errvfopor 6errvr!q
6errvuoIpr1v 6erxvrioro
6errv6qtor
6errv6orto
6errvu
6errvuoipte0cr
indicative present
Active 8ekvDpt I show
sg
indicative
imperative
subjunctive
optative
present
1 6eirv0pr 6errvriar 2 6eixv0q 6eirv6 6errvfqq 6errvfq 3 6eirvDor(v) 6errv6tro pl 1 8eirvutrrev 6errv6copev 2 Seirvure 8eirvute 6eirvriqte 3 6errv6oor(v) 8errvfwrov 6arrvfcoor(v)
sg
lnfinitive:
6errv6vsr
Participle: 6errv6q,
6errvriorpr 6errv6orq
6errv6or 6errvforpev 6errv6orte 6errv6orev
6errv0oc, 8errviv (stem 6errv6vrj
imperfect sg
1 2 3
pl1 2
3
pr I Or I
66eirv0v d8eirvDg
€Deirvu €6eirvupev
d6eirvure 66eirvuoov
Inlinitive:
6eirvuo0or
Participle:
6errvrilo0e
6errvrloro0e
6errv6ovtor
6errvfotvto
6errvfpev-oq, -q, -ov
imperfect
1 2 3 pl 1 2 3
sg
66errvfpqv d6eirvuoo d8eirvuto dberrv6pe0o d6eirvuo'0e €Deirvuvto
t{ote In the passive, the future, aorist, perfect and pluperfect are formed regularly: tierlOfloopor, d6ei10r1v, 666erypor, €6eDeiypqv.
llote In the active, the aodst, future, perfect and pluperfect tenses are formed as follows:
Middfe 8eirvvpat I show
d6erto, 6ei[ro, 666er1o, dDe6ei1q.
indicative
imperative
subjunctive
optative
aorist sg
1
dOer(ripqv etc. regularly as Cnouodpqv
ilote
with all verbs, the middle is different in form from the passive only in the future and aorist tenses; the future middle is 6ei[opor. As
lrregular verbs | 93
| 92 ; verbs in pot
66vapar
I lrregular verbs tipi
Middfe 66vopan I am able, I can
imperative
subjunctive
optative
66vapcrr 6r5vooor
8uvoipqv
6r5vooo
66vopor 6rivq
66votor
6uvrio'0co
66vqtor
66voto 6rivorro
6uvrirpe0o
duvaipeOo
66voo0e
6rivqo0e 66vorvror
66voro0e
indicative
pl1
6uvripe0o
z
66vqo0e S6vavtor
Inftnitive:
6uvdo0rov
66votvto
66voo0or Participle: 6uvripev-oq, -1, -ov
d6uvdprlv d66vooo d66vsro
pl1
66uvripe0o 86rivoo0e
subjunctive
optative
I eipi 2xi 3 dod(v) pl I 6op6v 2 Eort 3 eioi(v) eivor
1o0r dotco
o)
elrlv
U5
eirq
drpev
elpev or ei4pev
dote
fire
eire or eiqte
dvtcov
riror(v)
elev or elqoov
Participle: d6v, oSoo, dv
lmperfect / was
sgl flvorfr 2 froOo 3flv pl
d66vovro
I 2 3
flpeu
fire fioov
l{ote
l{ote
1 Note
imperative
sg
Inllnitive:
imperfect
sg1 2 3 2 3
indicative pfesent
present
sg1 2 3
I am
also the verb
reipor (l lie, am placed) which is
used for the passive of
dOqpr (l place): retpor, retoar, reitor, reipe0a, retoOe, rsivrcr; infinitive retoOor; participle reipevoq -q -ov; imperfect dxeiprlv, dreroo, 6rerto, etc.; future reioopor.
|
'fhe future tense of eipi is doopor and is formed regularly except for the 3 sg., which is dorar. 2 'l'he present indicative (except the 2 sg.) is enclitic. However, ioti is written dotr when it starts a sentence; possibly when it means 'he, she, it exists'; and when it follows o0r, pf1, el, drg, roi, dX.},ri, to0ro. 3 Distinguish carefully the indicative forms from those of eipr (l shall go); see p. 94. 4 'fhe alternative optative forms are only used in prose. Plato uses eipsv; eite occurs only in poetry; etev is used in prose and verse, and is more common than cirloov.
|
| 94 ; Inegular
tiltt
lrregular verbs | 95
verbs
oi6a I know
I shall go, am going
ind icative
imperative
indicative
subjunctive
optative
lor
iorpr or loiqv
hs
lorq
l6vor
I shall go)
Participle:
10r
irco
irl
Io)pSV
rorprv
irt
lqte
101Tt
l6vr
lon(v)
iorev
lor
1 2 3
pl1 2
1 2 3 pl I 2 3
sg
optative
fro or ijerv ij ero0o or ij erq
3
ijerv or ijer pl
frpev
fire
Note
1 The 'present' indicative of this verb is future in meaning: for a true present
o16a
oioOo oi6e(v)
io0t 'io'rro
iotrrev
ei6dr
ei6eiqv
ei6ffq ei6n
ei6eiqq
el6drpev
ei6-eipev or -eiqpev e16-aite or -e[r1te ei6-eiev or -elqoov
'icrt,
10Tt
ei6flre
iooor(v)
10T(oV
ei66:or(v)
el6eir'1
plupetlect I knew sg I ij6r1 or ij8erv 2 ij6r1o0o or fjberg or ij8etoOo
ijeoov or froov
tense,
dplopor (l go). In the subjunctive, optative, infinitive and participle, it may be either future or present. The aorist is frl,Oov (l went), the perfect is iLr'1l"uOo (l use
2
subjunctive
hfinitive: e166vor Participle: ei6rbq, -uio, -69 (stem et66r-)
kilv, lo0oa, i6v
imperfect I was going, went sg
imperative
perfect (with present meaning)
present
sg1 elpr (: 2ei 3 etor(v) pl 1 lpev 2 ire 3 loo(v) Inftnitive:
|
have come) and the pluperfect is dl,r1l,60q, all of which are formed regularly. However, iirro (l have come) and firov (l came] are frequently used for the perfect and pluperfect respectively. Whether such verbs in a given instance signify coming or going (arrival or departureJ must be decided by the context.
1 2 3
ij6e(v) fiopev
fio:lfroav or ij6eoov
t{ote This verb is perfect in form but present in meaning. Etymologically it is related to Lati,n uideo 'I see'. The perfect in Greek thus came to mean 'I know (that) ...' from '[ have seen that...,. 2 The aorist of this root became the aorist for 6pdco (/ see): ei6ov.
I
| 96 | lrregular
Inegular verbs | 97
verbs
Tables of principal parts
grl1ti I say
imperative
indicative
subjunctive
optative
present
sg1 2 3 pl 1 2 3 Inlinitive:
q(D
goilv
ehqor
anq
90ire
qqoi(v)
tpdt
qn
q0in
rpdpev
qflte
q(lrprv qciqre
qdlot(v)
goiev
qnpi
rpop6v
gdre
qart qooi(v)
edvol
Participle:
qdv
'l'he list of verbs is divided into two groups. The first table contains the 101 most common verbs, and is well worth learning. The second table is provided for reference. Note:
.
.
inperfect dgqv
sgl 2
3
pli 2
d9r1o0o dqn
drpqg
69crpev
drpote fl
Note
I
2 3 4
compound verbs are generally given without their prefix. The most common prefix is given in brackets. Note that, in general, prose prefers the compounded forms, whereas verse uses both compound forms and forms without a prefix. a form beginning with a hyphen indicates that the verb is not found (or is rarely found) without a prefix in this tense or voice but that
compounds of it are.
or
|
The present participle of
a
italics indicate forms which are rarely or never found in Attic prose.
a
where the word in the first column is deponent (i.e. middle in form but active in meaning) the forms given for the perfect middle/passive and aorist passive are also generally active in meaning.
| 98 | lrregular
Inegular verbs | 99
verbs
Top 101 irregular verbs Present
Meaning
Future
Passive
Passive
iiyyel"por
f1116l"0rlv
dyyel.0rloopct
d€rrl
iiyolov
'ira
nYpol
riXOnv
&160f1oopot
I praise
-(t1v€o(0
-rlvroo
-nvnpot
-qv6011v
-arve0rlootrror
I take (acI.)
olprloco
eTl.ov
'iipqpar
ip60qv
alpeOrloopcr
dptir (6o)
ipo
nppcrl
rip0nv
dpOrloopnr
oloOfloopot
{o06pqv
oio'lguvdr (6
ijol0vo
{o16v0r1v
ololuvo0pot (6o)
dyyel,6
frTro
I lead
aip6or
Aorist
illyeko
I announce
(€n-)
Perfect Middle/Passive
iiy1eil.o
dry61'l'ro
civrfor
Aorist
Future
(6co)
/ choose (mid.) cipor
I lift,
remove
cioOrivopcr I perceive
cicl6vo
I disgrace (act.)
{1rro
ijo0rlpor (tr.)
oioluvOtloopor
I am ashamed (pass.)
I hear
dro6oopor
TIKODO(t
dlioxopcr.
I am caPtured
dl.c0oopor
66},rov
ripaptrivo
I make a mistake, mlss ritrroptqoopot
rivdlioro
I spend
dpx.o
/rxrlroo
flrorloOqv
drouo0{oopor
iipoptov
ilpriprqrc
qpoprlpor
{paptf0qv
dvol,riloro
dvr1l"orco
drvrll,rrlro
dvrll,ropor
dvql.16011v
dvdl,coOfloopor
I begin, rule
dp(ro
flp€o
4ttxa
npypol
ripX0nv
dpy4rjoopat
oQrrvropor
I arrive
d
&qir6pqv
paivro
I walk, go
-Bfloopot
-60nv
fli:pqra
ftfttl,or
I throw
0a1.6 (6ro)
6Bol.ov
pr';pl.qro
tBl.q0qv
Bl.q0{oopor
Fuir,l
I live
pt<6oopot (f1oor, (qoopor
dpiorv
llr:pforo
(d(rov, d(nv impf.)
6Boul.(0qv
pooAq9fioopat
[(dto]
poflopm
I want, wish
pou?'qoopot
drpiypor
B6Bl.qpar
BeBo6tr
rlpor
|
|
lrregular verbs
1oO I lrregular verbs
Perfect
Meaning
yopd I take as my wife (acl.) I take as my husband (mid..)
(6ro)
dTnpa
y0YopnK(l
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
| 101 I
YeY0pnpol
yrl,ri
I laugh
yel,doopor
dy6[ooo
yiyvopar
I become
Y€vqoop(ll
6yevoprlv
Y0Yov(I
yel4vqpor
pyvrbcro
I recognise
Yvooopol
rYvov
{iyvoro
eYv(Dopor
dyvriro0qv
yvcooOrloopor
06xvor
I bite
5q(opor
d6orov
6166111por
66nxOnv
6q10f1oopor
ofl
it is necessary
6efloer
d6611oe
6eixv$pr
I show
6ei(ro
d6erlo
,lti;lierlc
666etypor
€6ei26011v
6er10r1oopor
6r66lro
d6i6oIo
lir:6i6o1o
6e6l6oypat
66t5ri10qv
6r6ri(opor
d6roro
6i;6olro
666opor
d660qv
6o0rloopor
6r6rioror I teach
6i6opr
I give
6ox6or
I seem
66(rrr
66vapor
I can, am able
6uvfloopor
€riar
I allow
66o
€yeldoO4v
666oypor
d6o(o
eidoo
l:1(tK0,
6e66vr1por
t6uvf0nv
s1([p01
ei60qv
86oopor
f1y6p0qv
€yep0floopot
(eirov (oo) impf.)
dleip
I arouse
€yepdr (6ro)
iiyerpo
i1pf11opo (intr.)
€06l.ro
I
60el.r1oro
{06}.1oo
r\06).qro
eipi
I am
eoopol
flv (impf.)
wish
€l.o6v
€}"tir
S?ur
I drag
-61.(ro
6nopar.
I follow
evopor
(do)
iil.ooo
-r:l"f l"axa
El,r1l"opor
{}"dOnv
ell,ruoo
-r;iLruro
-eil"ruopor
-erl,rrio0r1v
Eon6pqv
(eir6pqv impf.)
-ekuo0floopcrr
|
Inegular verbs
102 ; Inegular verbs
lgo I ask
etlpioxor
Passive
rlprilqro
np@rqFor
{prod10qv
ilrr,r
il.t\oopat
6potfloco
ip6ptlv
€prloopttt
flpr6tqoo
I eat
d6opar
Eq(lTov
i6116oro
-eDrl6eopor
{66o0nv
I find
eipfloo
q0pov
qtlpqra
qUpqpot
qip6hv
e6pov
r:iipqro
ei5pqpor
e0p60qv
ii€ro
6o1ov
iio7611ra
-eor(Ipol
olfloco
(ei1ov impf.)
I bury
(tiao-) I die
Oriyro
d0oyo
Oovo0pot (6o)
d0ovov
ttlp.
I send, shoot
Tloo
firo
totqpr
I make stand (tr.)
orqoo
dotrloo (tr.)
I burn
tcolo)
rloior
I call
xol.ri
(6co)
drdl.eoo
I
rl,o0oopor
drl"quoc
weep
r?,6o (in prose)
t
iioOqv
flo0rloopor
t6Otrppor
dtdqqv
r(l9rloopol
elptrr
et011v
60f1oopor
tox&pan
dot60qv
oto0{oopor
.KTKODKO
KSK(IDpol
€ro6011v
-rouOfloopor
x6rl,r1rc
r6rl,rlpor
dx}.f10qv
rl,110f1oopot
r6rl,oupor
Erc).a6o0qv
rc)aooOrioopat
ri0vqro
ljoqro
(intr.)
r6rlouopor
rl,oflool I steal
rl.6yol
judei)
rprv6
(6
rprvo)
t
Krcopor
I obtain, gain
Krnoopol
I kill
rtevdl
(rine')
e0peOqoopot
doqv (intr.)
/ sfand (intr.)
xreiv
Future
Passive
I am pleased, enjoy
fi6oyn
Ovrfcx
Aorist
d1.fl.u0o
eipr i'1\a,
dpotrflor
Perfect Middle/Passive
Perfect
Meaning
| 103 |
(6co)
drl,erya
x6rl,orpo
r6rl,eptrror
6rl"rinqv
€Kprvo
r6rprro
KrKpl}ror
€rpi0qv
KeKrqlrol
6ro10qv
€rnlodpqv drrervo Erctavov
rprOrloopor
|
lrregular verbs | 105
104 ; tnegular verbs
l,cpprivtrl
I take
L,av0rivor
I escape the notice
?'6yro
I say
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
r:i}"qqo
eil,qppor
dl,r190qv
l,q
l"i;},q0o
-1,6l.qopcr
r;ipqro
elpqpor l,6l.eypor
dpprlfuv
eiprloopor
Perfect
Meaning
l"r1yopor
of
6tr
oBov
trqoco dprn (6co)
slnov
1"6(ro
EAe(a
dl.610qv
pq0r'loopor 1,e10f1oopor
I
leave
l,eiryro
6l,tnov
l,r':l,orno
pr;pd0qra
8l"ei
l"ergO(oopor
p6pvlpor
dpv{oOqv
pvrlo0rloopor
voptoOrloopor
l"6l.etppor
pavOriv
I learn
poOfloopot
dpo0ov
prilopn
I fight
poloOpor (6o)
6po26eodpqv
prl,er
it concerns
pel,rloer
6p6l,qoe
p6?'l'to
I intend, am about
pel.l.r1oor
dp6l.l.r1oo
pev6 (6ro)
6ptlvc
I remind (acl.) I remember (mid..)
-pvl]oo)
-€pvrlo'o
I think, consider
voprd (6ro)
6v6proo
vl:voplK(I
vev6propor
CvopioOqv
I oPen
-oilro
-6qr€a
-rxpx0
-rQTlr0r
-erf10qv
oi6a
I know
Elooilot
ij6n (impf.)
6ll'0pr (dt-)
I destroy (act.)
-ol.rn (6ro)
-drl,eoa -rol.6pr1v (intr. mid.)
p6vor
pqrvqoxo) (tf,vc-)
vopi(or
oiyv0pr
(riv-)
(to)
I perish (mid.) opvDpr
I swear
6po0por (6o)
pep(Ir(npol pr:p61.11re
lu:p€vTlKrr
ol.drl"ero (tr.) t!),ori,o (intr.J
rip60qv
rlpdlporc
d6pooo
dpooOfloopor
rirp6o'0qv
d:tipdro,
ei6ov
6prfuo
(dc6prov
6
(oo) impf.)
riqeil.qoo d6qel"ov
€rbpdro
imona rirtpe
il,qro
Erbpopor
drppor
ribg0qv
6qOrloopor
|
|
lrregular verbs | 107
106 I Inegular verbs
Present
Perfect
Meaning
ndtcyot
I suffer
n€loopol
neiOor
I persuade (act.) I obey {mid.)
neioro neioopor
(mid.)
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
fi€fi€rop01
dneioOqv
neroOfloopor
neneppar
6n6pq04v
reprp0r'loopor
nrinl,qro
-n6nl,qopor
-er},f o0r1v
-nl,11o011oopor
r:tx(0Ko
-n€?rop01
-en6011v
-no0rloopor
ntnpdypar
drptil0rlv
rcpd26011oopot
nenpapar
6np60qv
fisrxp(xo,op01
rinov0o
6no0ov
n
dneroo (act.)
ni;nr:rro (tr.)
int06pqv (mid..)
ni:nor0o
(=
{intr.
frusf))
nr:'Iol.rqo
nipnruo
I send
fiep\yo
6nepryo
nipnl'qpr
I fiil
-ri"r1ool
-6nl"r1oo
nfvo
I drink
moF(rr
tttl0v
n
ninrro,
I fall
neooOpor (6o)
t,Teoov
I l:'IT(l)K0,
nLirlo
I sail
nl,efoopor
dnleuoo
n
(6pJdv)
i:nl,uurc
nl,euoo0por (6o)
I act, do
(tr.l
ni;npo1o nr:npayo (tr. & rrrtr. have fared))
np,&(ol
(:
nuv0rivopcr
I enquire, find
rorl,6ro
I
sell
dno6i8opar
break
out
fitnllopol
nefoopor
dnu06pqv
norl"rloo dno6droopor
EncbAqoa
-pfl(o
dppn€c
r.p1r0ys (intr.)
-tpp4ypat
rppoYnv
-poTnoopol
dorerl"o
i:orul"xo
dorol,por
€ot61,r1v
-orol"rloopor
l:ooK{t
o€ocoopor
dorir0rlv
oco0floopor
l:rprlKo
T€rprlpol
6tpr10qv
tpq0rjoopat
Et60qv
te0rloopor
dtptil0qv
rpco0{oopor
nr:rpdro
dre66pqv
prfp0pr
I
ct61,l
I send
-otelrdl
66(to
I save
o(Doo)
dorpoo
t6pveo
I cut
repdr (6ar)
eTrpov
ri0qpr
I place, put
0f1oro
dOqro
r
tirtor
I give birth to,
6rerov
t r:ToK(I
trtpt6oro
I wound
(6co)
(riro-, inl-)
beget t6fopor rpoo(D
rTp(Doo
(r
r
r:0qrc
reipor
(see
r€rp@p(ll
p.
92)
|
|
lrregular verbs
108 | lrregular verbs
Present
Meaning
I turn (t.)
lprfio)
Future
rp6yco
Aorist
drpeyo Erpan6pqv
(l
| 109 |
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
r€rpopp(lr
dtp6g0r1v
rpan(oopar
dtpdnqv (intr.)
fled)
rprqc)
I nourish, support
0p6vco
d0peyo
il;rpoqo
rpr?((D
I run
6papo0pcrt (6o)
66pcpov
6r:tipdprlro
r60poppor
erpoqnv
rpo9noopor
€
gov4oopor
-0efoopot rDTr(ovo)
I happen
trnro26v6opar I promise
I reveal (act.) I appear, seem (mid.)
QOrVC)
teflopor
dtulov
inoolrloopor
6neo16pqv
rpov6 (6ro)
drpnvo
r;n)r(TlK(I
6n6o111pcr nlqtuyrca (tr.)
1r€9(Iopol
nrirpqvo (intr.)
I carry bear
qfp(')
r
rivqvolo
TlveTK(I
drprivrlv (intr.)
dvrlveypor
f1vri10qv
qrDTo)
I flee
rpe6(opot
Qqpr
I say
qnocD
qOdvro
I anticipate
€9uyov
n
r:90DY(I
drpqoo
(dqnv impf.) q0floopor
690aoo 6rp0qv (like
q0eipo
-eve1011oopor
oio0rloopor
nveTKov
(6w-) / destroy, corrupt
doqv)
d
i190apro
dg0oppor
d90ripr1v
ne
€9op110rlv
dcirvqpor (: have bought or
drovflOqv
i;g0opo (tr. & irrlr. 1: am ruined)) qopdopcr
I fear
rpoBr'loopar
rpD@
I produce (tr.)
rp6oro (tr.)
I am by nature (intr.)
gq0o0 (tr.J gqov (intr.)
xprl
it is necessary
(6)xprlv (impf.)
rbv6opor
I buy
ovqoopor
eTrplopnv
ni:g[ro (intr.)
have been bought)
-q0opfloopor
1
lrregular verbs
10 | lrregular verbs
| 111 |
More principal parts
d7v[pr
I
break
-d(ro
d6ro
I
sing
{oopot
oi66opor
I respect, feel shame ol66oopor
riX.eirpol
I anoint
ril']u6ooto ril'?'rfitt
I
fi),1.opar
I leap
anto,
I fasten.
dp6orro
I please
apeoQ)
dpp6ttro
I fit
ripp6oro
change
Aorist
Future
Middle/Passive
Passive
Passive
z
-roYqv
t.('lY(I
ij6eopor
{66ofuv
oi6eo0rloopor dl,erg0rloopat
dl,eiyro
rrAiltr"tgo
&l"r1l,rppor
{}"ei90qv
dl"l,ti[ro
r1i.),c1o
iil.tr aypor
il,l,riyqv
-oX.l,ay{oopor
{l"}"ri1fuv
-o1.l.o10f1oopor (poeticJ
dtr
kindle
Perfect
(poetic)
oOpor (6o)
dvro
nppol
iirp0qv
nppoolr0l
f1pp6oOqv
d"ppoo04oopat
dpp6(ro
I increase
rqi;1,r1rc4,
$L6,nrro
I hurt
Itr,f
B).tborca
lgo
pd.oipar (io)
EpoTov
Tpd9(o
I write
vpdv(o
6yptttyo
atr(rfivol
oi(qOfloopat
qilIr'1pot
c6[to tl,cgo
B6BX.oppor
€pl.de0qv
Bl,oBflootrrot
dBl"6Bqv
-66op0ov
6ap0dna (rcau) I sleeP 661opor
I receive
66(opor
d6e[6pqv
66ar
I bind
611oro
66qoc
ri
1tf )axa
ypo9loopol
Yeypoppol iir:6up0r1ro 666eypor
,ri;iicrc
666epor
-e661011v
6eOrioopot
|
Inegular verbs | 1 13
112 | lnegular verbs
Perfect
Meaning
6r,6ror
I Pursue
Drdr(opor
€6i
6e6icu1o
Eprio
I do
6p6oor
€6pooo
666prlro
dtiy2lro
! cross-examine, refute
d1.6y(ro
iil.ey(tt
i\tn6.(a
I investigate
€(et6oco
d(ftoott
€ndctcpor,
I know,
eiiDto
(ro0-)
understand drtotrlootrrcrr
I sleeP
d(4taro
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
66rril26011v
6rco1011oopot
666popor
dDp6ofuv
dl.r11,eypot
rl1.6y10qv
€l"ey10r1ooptrr
d(rlroopat
6(11tdoO11v
E[etoo0rloopor
flnrotdpqv (impf')
{ntott'10qv
-e06(oor drd0eu6ov (N.B., impf.)
eil26opor
I PraY, boast
ei1(opor
q0(6pqv
rOypor
(eripspr
I Yoke
(e6(ro
6(eu(o
d(euypot
i,(6y4v i(et5X04v
(6ro
I boil (ir,:tt.)
-(6o
d(eoa
-i,(eopat
-e(io0qv
06.
I sacrifice
05ocu
d00oa
r60upor
€t60r'1v
ra0oipor
I purify
ro0crprir
drd0qpo
rerdOappor
€roOripOqv
xolu6nror
I cover
rcl,riyrrr
6rril.uya
rerril,uppor
6rol.rirp0qv
rdlg94oopat
xdpv
I toil, am tired
ropoOpor
xeipo
I shear
repdl
rrprivv0pr
I mix
rep8oivor
I gain
rep8ovdl
rqpDrro)
I proclaim
ropi(
I care for, carry
roptdl
z
(6ro) (6o)
(6o)
(6ro)
dropov
h
u0rioopat
l;KltTlK(I
dretpa
KrKoppol
dr6pooo
KrKpop(ll
drp60r1v 6reprioOrlv
rcpa9rloopat
6r6p6ovo
-xr:r6p6qro
rr1p5(ro
drnp0(o
-r;uKnpDIo
K€KrlpuYlr('1
€rqp61fuv
xqpril0floopor
(6or)
dr6proo
xuroprro
rcer6propor
dropio0rlv
roproO{ootrlor
(usually mid.)
|
|
1
lrregular verbs
14 | lrregular verbs
Perfect Middle/Passive
Aorist
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
Present
Meaning
Future
KpEpowDFr
I hang (tr.)
rpupdr (do)
6rp6pooc
Luya,&va
I obtain by lot
l,r1(opor
dl"olov
r:il,q1a
pcivor
I madden
rpnvo
popnv0 (: am maA
peiyv[pr
I mix
pei[ar
vfpor
I distribute, pasture
veprir (6ro)
dver;.ro
-vrvrpl'lK{r
vfro
Iswim
veuoo0pot (6o)
-€vtDo0,
-vtvtDKo
og(D
/ smel/ (intr.)
d(rtoto
d6(qoo
orpor
I think
oi{oopor
4ipnv (impf.)
Qrl0nv
dviv4pr
I benefit
6vqoro
d6vr1o'o
cbvt0rlv
6pti(or
I
-opydr (6ro)
ri6ppoo
dpftrto
I dig
-opri[ro
6pu(o
dorppcivopcr
I smell (tr.)
ooqpnoopol
riroqp6ptlv
6rpi'florrl
6
| 1 15 |
€rpeprio0rlv ell,qypar
epovnv
pepelTlrol
dpar(o
61"f126fuv
Cpiyqv
perl0floopot
dpeil0qv
pflvbpr vev6pqpor
dveprl0qv
vepq9rjoopar
otopor.
enrage
6
cirpTio0qv
6pyroO{oopor
6pcirpuypor
rirp610qv
-opu104oopar
rboqpdv0rlv
riigl.qxo
dr5
-tttfianK&
I strike ,r8porvo,
I accomplish
nepavdl (6ol)
616pdvo
n6p6opcr
I fart
-nop6floopor
-6nop6ov
netriw[pr
I spread out
-nerdl (6or)
-t?raT(I,60
I fly
-ntfloopat
-entopqv
(dvo-)
niwuor
-opopDr(0
riipyropor
Enaio04v
fiefirpoopol nfnop6o
-ninrapol
Cnepdv0rlv
lrregular verbs
116 | lrregular verbs
Perfect Middle/Passive
nipnpqpr
I fix
flnq(o
I burn
-6rpqoo
ni:nqyc
(intr.
(:
Aorist
Future
Passive
Passive
efi(ITrlv
nayfoopor
| 117 |
am fixed))
-nefiprlpol
-enpr1oOqv
-ntn?'.r'1ypar
6nl,f1pv
rl.qyrloopor
-enl,dyqv
-n1"oyr'loopor
(dpJ€v-)
nX,rfltrro
I strike
-nl,rl(rll
I breathe, blow
nveuoo0por (6o) nve6oopat
ni:nl.qyo
-'It;'[vgDK0,
lflow
dppfnv (intr.)
ifinrrll
I throw
6ppi9011v
op6w6pr
I extinguish
oB6oro
o4poivor
I show
orlpovd) (60)
I dig
oK0\ro
6opeoa doBrlv (intr.
-i:oBqro
(:
went ou})
(-
(intr.
have gone
dotlprlvo
toBeopat
dop6o0qv
oeoflpoopor
6or1pdv0r1v
oufl)
-onooOfloopor
I draw, drag
oreipo
I sow
onepdr (6ro)
donoppor
on6v6ro
I pour a libation
-orxa10(r)
so-fi€1olrot
I turn
-orpe\ro
I stretch
or(rpnoopol
dotpdgrlv (usu. intr.) -otporpfoopar Eorpirp94v
deceive
I arrange, draw t6tvc)
-oqpovOrloopor
-eoKo9rlv
ottoct
I trip up,
-ppirp0qoopat
uP
o
o9ol"6 (6ro) r,6.la
il:T(II0
rrr0Ylrol
6rd1011v
tol0floopor
revdr (6ro)
-rctoro
TrTOpOl
-er604v
-ro0floopor
rr:r6l,ero
ter6l,eopor
drel,6o0nv
rel"eo0rloopor
t finish, accomPlish tel"rn (6ro)
|
lrregular verbs
118 ; lnegular verbs
Perfect Middle/Passive
Future
Passive
Passive
drrirqv (intr. (: I became molten))
ri:rr1ro (intr. l- I am molten))
I melt
Aorist
I I 19 |
I pay, expiate
dreroo
t
r:Il;tKu,
-Trrerop(Il
-Areio01v
I rub
drptya
r
r:rptq(r
rrrplppol
dtpiBqv
-tprpfloopcrr
dtpirp0rlv
I
weave
I spare
096v0qv
6
iirpqvo
Qeloopol
6
I r:{pp(IKo
d
firQp(Iopol
C
(tr
GIb@) nr:g(rl,o1o
I guard
I rejoice
t(pfo)
xt(o
I anoint
lptoro
I deceive
l.lr€Do(D
I push
dlripqv
rceyip4pat rc{yappat
Iorploo
I pour
neg0l,oypor (intr. €
(:
was delighted)
d16fuv
h l:XDKO
Eyea
I
luOfloopor
d1pio0r1v
dyeuopor (tr.
or
dye6o0qv
ryeuo0{oopor
pass. in meaning)
rilo0{o'opat
drooa 6<60ouv
(so) (impf.)
Gonstruclionb
The definite article
The definite article
4
The article can be used with adjectives functioning as nouns, e.g.: oi dv6peior Drave men
justice (Iiterolly, the just thing)
to 6irorov
5
| 123 |
The article can be used with participles, e.g.: 6 Boul.6pevoq anyone who wishes, the first to volunteer , II I literallv, the man who meets, o tTitTuyov :;"""1-' | { i.e. the first man one meets, the man in o tvrDX0)v J I tne street td yeyevqp6vo the things that have occurred, events oi di,nOn l.6yovteg those speaking the truth, those who speak the I
The hero was saved bY a woman.
In this sentence 'the' is the definite article and 'a' (written 'an' before a vowel) the indefinite article. Greek has no word for the indefinite article, though it often uses the indefinite pronoun ttq (some, a certain) after the noun to perform the same function (see p. i49). It does, however, have a definite article: 6, f , t6 (for the full declension, see p. 24). Greek uses the definite article much as English does, but note the following points. They include a number of instances where the word 'the' must be omitted in translation into English:
1
2
3
ill
iii
l${
In English, the names of people and places almost never have the article, but in Greek, they very often do. It may well not be used the first time a name occurs. For example, Herodotus begins his history by declaring that it i$ the work 'Hpo66tou Altropvrloo6og (of Herodotus from Halicarnassus) and Thucydides says that @our06i6r1g A0rlvoiog (uv6ypoye tov rc6l.epov (Thucydides the Athenian wrote the history of the war).t But after a name has been mentioned once, subsequent uses generally need the article. With famous names, however, the article can be used on their first occurrence, e.g. 6 tdrv 6ntd ooqciltotog l6l"
truth participle The article with the is frequently found with the meaning of
p. 138. The article is used with nouns or adjectives which describe whole a relative clause. See
6
classes. We call this usage generie: (as opposed to other 6 dvOponoq I a man, men, mankind livinS creatures) oi dvOpronor JI women oi yuvoireq oi y6povreq old people oi oogoi the wise
I
The article can be used with adverbs or adverbial phrases and without nouns in such exoressions as: the people there oi 6rei the people here oi dv0d6e people nowadays oi vOv people in the old days oi ndl"or people then oi t6te those in the prime of life oi €v fllrrig the people in authority oi €v r6l.er
the possessor:
6 66, ft 66, td 66 and/but he, and/but she, andibut it
K0p6g te rottrnrl8fooq dnd toO ffppotoq tdv Orilpcra dveSDeto. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.3) And after leaping down from his chariot, Cyrus put on his breastplate. Abstract nouns are generally found with the article. Note therefore that f1 dv8peio must be translated as 'courage' and not 'the courage''
Here the article refers back to a noun in a previous clause which was not the subject of that clause:
I The supremely important king of Persia is referred to simply as Boorlefq, without the article.
'Ivdproq... A0lvoiouq dnrlyriyeto. oi
6i...
fi),Oov. (Thucydides
1.r04.r-2) Inaros invited the Athenians; and they came.
The definite article
6
p6v...6 66 this one ... and (or but) that one ..'
oi p6v .. . oi 66 some . . . others ... or) n6ooq 1pq rdg 66(o9 t6rv
dvOpcirnrov
tip0v, dl")"d tdq p6v, tdq 6'
oi1; (Plato, Crito 47a)
| 125 |
This is found in Herodotus and tragedy too:
rrelvouoo toig o0 1pl rroveiv (Euripides, Andromache
870)
killing those whom it is not right to kill We never find this relative form in Attic prose or comedy.
... so one shouldn't respect all the opinions of men, but (only) some and not others? Note also: td p6v ... td 66
on the one hand ... and on the other hand ...
singular of the definite article (t6) with the infinitive creates a verbal noun (also called a gerund). In English, the verbal noun ends in '-ing', or the infinitive can be used. Examples are:
Adjectives or adjectival phrases normally come between the article and the noun or (less commonly) after the noun with the article repeated. We call these positions attributive:
Communicating (or to communicate) is difficult. I like walking (or to walk).
fl ooqrl yuvrl or f yuvl the wise woman
10 The neuter
td npdrterv td to0to npii'cr,el
accompl ishing, to accomPlish
accomplishing this The subject of the infinitive, if expressed at all, is in the accusative:
td dpi to0to
npdrtxw
my accomplishing this
acc. gen.
dat.
l
;
npdtterv
il
,,ti
l'li il$l
iill {i1ti
fii
d1v 6' By
6 8ervdg l.ey6pevoq yeorpy6q (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 19.I4)
the man who is called a skilful farmer
oirid (the mother's house): f1 oiria tfl6 p1tp6q
is
dn6rtetvev Eourdv r(l 6outo0 li
by not accomplishing this' by failing to accomplish this, through failure to accomPlish this article as a deictic pronoun (see p. ix) definite of the use original 1 1 The is frequently met in Homer and Herodotus:
to0to
oo
The genitive of deictic and reflexive pronouns (e.g. torirqg, €reivou, to06e, oeouto0, 6outo0) takes the attributive position:
td np&ttetv toO npdtterv t{r np&ttetv
Negative pt1. r@ pi1
{
oi 6v doter repopeiq or oi repopeig oi 6v dorer the potters in the city
Cf. fl tflq pqrpdq less common. '
This verbal noun declines: nom. td npi5itterv
il
I The definite article and word order
f}.D)
See
also 3 onp.147.
If the adjective is not in this position, i.e. stands outside the article and noun, the verb 'to be' will be understood in some way, e.g. f1 yuvil oorpll The woman (is) clever. &Odvorov tilv nepi o0tdlv pvrlprlv rcrtol.eiryouorv. (lsocrates 1.9.3) They will leave behind a memory of themselves (that will be)
immortal. We call this the predicative position.
I rzo I rn.
definite article
A noun without the article can be used in this way, e.g.
Relative clauses
o'tpcrqydq 6 "kov lon (is) a general.
VI rn. following words will be found in the predicative either before the article or after the noun: o6toq 6 noiq this oOtog - e.g. or 6 naig o6tog 66e
6reivoq
€rootog Ercritepog dpqro/dp
position, i.e'
This is the man who betrayed me. I am the man whom she betrayed. There is the woman for whom he left me. That is the relationship that she preferred.
= this child
this that
lrc relative pronoun (who, which, whom, whose, that) is one of the few which can change according to its function in the sentence. \()t{.', however, that in English the word 'whom' is now used very little. I lrt' second of the above sentences could be rewritten: I am the woman (who/that) he betrayed. I
each each of two both
all, each and every (used attributively, it means 'as a whole', e.g. oi ndvteg nol.iror : the whole body of citizens)
l,rr1;lish words
you can see, the word 'who', 'whom' or 'that' may be omitted. 'I'he relative pronoun refers back to a noun or pronoun, in the above
,,\s
.,r'nlences'man"'woman"'woman' and'relationship' respectively. we call
-
I Practice sentences 'lranslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 toir6 piv dnfrcterve, toirg 6i d€ftl,ooev. (Thucydides 5.82.2) 2 tbeil tdv orpotr
5
(Demosthenes 20.155) 6 Si noig ndvtrov 0qpiotv doti 808d)
8uopetoletprot6totov. (Plato, Laus
6 tdq tprrlpetg dgeil"ruoov rev&g. (Thucydides 2.93.4) 7 The Persian king loved his friends and hated his enemies' 8 Courage is (a) better (thing) than cowardice' I
l
l
.i ,l
r'
l
ii:11
l:r1
llt)
trll
i
l!r
.. .i,$fl ll,r ,r ! llll r / Its
rlrrs word the antecedent. after ln Greek, the most common word for 'who' is 5q, ii, 6 (see p. 50 tlrt.nominative singular and plural, this is the same as the definite article rvithout the t).1 It agrees in gender and number with its antecedent, but its , ,rsr' depends on its function in the relative clause which it introduces. ei6ov roirg dv6po6 oi d
dn6rrervo toDg dv6pog o06 e?6e9. I killed the men (whom) you saw. lrr the first sentence, oi is masculine and plural because it agrees with its ,rrrtecedent toilg dv8poq in gender and number. It is nominative because it
of the verb nqirovro. In the second sentence, oiig is masculine and plural because it agrees with its antecedent toiq dv6po6 in gender and number. It is accusative rs the subject
9 My wife admires the brave men of old more than (she does) people
nowaoays. 10 I told the first person I met what had happened' I hate Pericles. But he does not respect a man who wrongs him. 12 By hurrying, the desperate man reached his own house.
ll
I f, oi and ai do not have accents when they are the definite articles, but do have them (ii, oi and otJ when they are relative pronouns.
I rza
Relative clauses
; n.tutiue ctauses
not because toiq dv8poq is accusative, but because it is the object of the verb ei6eq. If you are translating from English into Greek, you can discover the case that the relative pronoun should be in by phrasing the English relative clause as a full sentence. In the second sentence above, you can change 'whom you saw' to 'You saw them (the men)'. In this sentence, 'the men' would be accusative in Greek, and so they will also be accusative in the corresponding relative clause. The Greek for 'the men' is masculine and plural. Hence oiiq. o6rq 6otiv fl yuvn ilv d(qto0pev. This is the woman whom we were looking for. bv ydp Oeoi qrl.oOorv dnoOvforet v6og. (Menander, Sententiae 425) For he whom the gods love dies young. Notice how the antecedent has to be understood in this example (i'e. it is not given in the Greek).
Bnorvdr oe
69'otq (for
En\
toftotg d) l.6yetg. (Xenophon, Anabasis
1.3.4s) I praise you for what you say. Note how the antecedent is omitted in the above sentence. This is usual when the relative is attracted into the case of a deictic pronoun (see p. ix). Cf. Milton, Paradise Lost 6.808: 'Vengeance is his, or whose he sole appoints.' Here 'whose' stands for 'that of the individual whom'.
nttraction of the relative is by no means inevitable. It happens with 6q, oioq and 5ooq, but not 6ottg.
6onep, iinep, 6nep is especially definite:
DOets.
6or1q, iitrq, 6tr when used as a relative is generalized, i.e. refer to a specific person: &vel"eriOepoq
it
does not
r0g 6oo9 eig 66(ov Bl,6ner. (Cleanthes, a Stoic
philosopher) Every man who looks to fame is unfree.
.
However, of all the Medes that I have seen ... this man, my grandfather, is by far the most handsome.
including the word 'all', as in the first example above.
torlr6v pot d6o(ov dlerv ripdptqpo 6nep roi oi norqtoi. (Plato, Apobgy 22d) They seemed to me to be making exactly the same mistake as the
.
6pdq n&nnoq
rdl,l"rotog. (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus I.3.2)
EI I" translating 6oog in the plural, it is likely that you will find yourself
Four more relative pronouns
.
Mll6ov p6vtor 6oov (for 6oouq) Erilporo . .. nol'i o8tog 6
| 129 |
otoq, -o, -ov (of the kind that) and 6ooq, -q, -ov (sg. as much as, pl. as many as) are commonly used. See p. 51.
N.ll. The article with the participle is frequently found with the meaning of 5 on p. 123.
,r lelative clause. See
dl,l"', oipor, oi tr06pevor tofg v6pouq oi do0eveig dv0p
llt're oi n06pevot toilg v6pouq is a participial phrase which could also have lrcen expressed by a relative clause, i.e. dreivor oi tiOevtot toiq v6pouq. I Practice sentences 'llanslate into English or Greek as appropriate:
I Attraction of the relative A relative pronoun which would be in the accusative is frequently attracted into the case of the antecedent if that antecedent is in the genitive or dative.
$t{
{rr i,'
1
fiv 66 tr6 3v
tfi otpotrQ
Eevo
A0rlvoiog, 0q o6te otpoolldq oilte
l"o1o1dq oUt e otpotttbtt'1 g iiv ouvr1rol.ori0er. (Xenophon, Anab asis
2
3.r.4) pordprog 6otrq oioiov
roi vo0v d1er. (Menandet, Sententiae 340)
130 | Relative clauses
3
locog ydp
4
5 6 7 8 9
l0
dvol,io'rouotv
o0rc eiq 0
6ei p6vov'
Time, place and space
dlld roi eig & Bl"riBqv
oitQ (the master of the house) roi tQ oirrp' (Xenophon'
Oeconomicus 3.5) 6 np6oBu, Togiolv 6c, not' 6(eil"eg n61,tv ... [This is not a complete sentence.l [Euripides, Heracles 60) dvrb 66, dt K0pe, roi 6lv Cyrb rpotdl pevoOpev. (Xenophon, Eduratton of Cyrus 5.1.26) | am the famous Heracles whom the gods love, the hero whose father is Zeus. This is the girl I gave the book to. The girl will give me all (use 6oo9) the apples she has' She iead none of the books that I gave her. (Attract the relative') ls it Athens that you are travelling to? (Use np6q + acc')
I Time
.
In Greek, the accusative expresses time luw long: oi 6i onov8oi dvroutdv doovto,r. (Thurydides 4.118.10) And the truce will be for a year. dtrl yeyovcbg 6B6opr1rcowo (Plalo, Apology I7d) born for seventy years, l.e. seventy years old [The life is seventy years long.l
With an ordinal number, the accusative expresses how long stnce'. 6056plv ... flpEpdv tfl6 0uyotpdq o$tQ tetel.euclruiog. (Aeschines
. ''\
J.t I
I
After his daughter had died six days before (this being the seventh (Cp66pnv) day of the duration of her death).
. .
'l'he genitive expresses time within which'. in the course of the night vDKTOq in the course of the winter lerpdlvoq 'l'he dative expresses time wlrcn;
rfl iotepoig
on the next day
rpoyrpDoig
at the presentation of the new tragedies (from an inscription)
dv is often
rorvoi6
found before the dative, especially in prose, e.g.
Cv oiStcog 6),iyrp 1p5vrp
in so brief a time :;()tne expressions of time:
dp'ipfpqr dpo (rf) Erp Bv peorlpBpig 6ei),qq npdg 6on6pov
.ii i;
hi ll;
ii
lill
at daybreak at dawn at midday in the afternoon towards evening
I tez
I
iir.,
Time, place and space
place and space
in the evening at nightfall early (in the day)
6on6po6 0nd vrlrta
np6 6v6 rfr npotepolg ro6q
€r toO
today tomorrow in summer in winter in spring in the future from that time
dv t@ nop6vn 6v toritrp
at present in the meantime
dlpepov uiiptov 06poug
lerpdlvog frpos to0 l,orno0
€
6r'6l"iyou eiq
rotp6v
plare where commonly involves prepositions followed by the dative: in the city 6v tfl n6l,er near or at the city npdq r@ doter
late on the day before on the next day yesterday
rfl iorepoig
dr tofrou perd ro0ro €ni Kp6vou, etc.
.
I
!
)
But in poetry the dative is used without Cv, and in prose place names can be found both with and without dv. Plato has an example of both alongside each other: tdrv te Mopo0drvr paleoop6vcov (PIaIo, Menexenus 247b)
roi tdv
dv
Xol.opivr voupolqodvtrov
both those who fought at Marathon and were in the sea battle at Salamis
g
While the dative, with or without 6v, generally expresses place where, an older dative plural ending survives for the first declension which is also used with this meaning. This ends in -dor or -qo1 (compare fll,orotOor (at Plataea) with the later dative lll.ctoroiq). In addition a small number of fossilized examples of the old locative (the case which expresses plate urhere) survive, e.g. oiror and lopoi (see below). For the sake of convenience, we classify all of these as
after this in the time of Cronus, etc. in our lifetime after a short interval at the right time
locatives.
Notc the following: . the locative:
I rr4us
okor
at home (but beware of noi
yapai
on the ground
In Greek, prepositions are generally used to indicate place:
A0r1vqot
at Athens
fll.otordor
at Plataea
I Ell-^^
.
.
motion towards involves prepositions followed by the accusative: towards/to the city npdg ro doru into the city eiq td dotu to Pharnabazus (the preposition rbq is used rb6 iDttPvdBo(ov wllh people only, not places) motion away from involves prepositions followed by the gcntlle: away from the city dnd toO dorecoq out of the city dr toO dotecoq from the Persian king (nopri is commonly nopd Booil.6roq used with people)
| 133 |
. .
(:
to where))
the suffix -Oev indicates ploce from where: from every side novrtrl60ev from Athens A0r1vq0ev
oko0av
from home
the suffix -6e or -oe indicates place to where; In every direction to Athens to home, homewards oiro6e Why the ( in A0r'1vo(e? Because the suffix -6e is being added to the accusative A0flvdq and the combination oD is naturally written with a TrovToxoor
A0rlvcr(e
zeta (see p. 1).
I ts+ I tir",
Time, place and space | 131
place and space
Some place words:
AOfvqor at Athens
d).Xo0r elsewhere
A0r1vq0ev from Athens
A0fvo(e
d)"l.o0ev from elsewhere
dl,Ioo'e
dp
dp
oriro0
o$t60ev
place,
from the very Place
in the very exactly there, exactly here
€rei there €v0ri6e here, there 6vto00ct here, there o06opo0 nowhere, in no
from there
iv06v6e from here dvteOOev from here, from there
oi6op60ev
place
at the same place everywnere
I Space o the accusative expresses extent of space: dn|yet td dotu tpio ot66ro.
to somewhere else
The town is three stades away.
B[elo6ver 6rd tflq A06idq oto0poUq tpeig, nopcrodllog e1roor rcri 66o. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.2.5) He advances the length of three days' marches, twenty-two parasangs, through Lydia.
oit6oe to the very place
. 6rei0ev
oixor at home 6po0 novtolo0
to Athens
from no Place
ohoOev from home
6p60ev from the same place
novrol60ev from every direction
|
dreioe to there Ev066e to here, to there
dvtcr00o
to here, to there o06op6oe to no place
oiro6e to home 6p6oe to the same place
navray6oe in all directions
'Ol,upninor
'Ol,upnio0ev
'Olupnio(e
at Olympia
from Olympia
to 0lympia
rd pflrog in
length
to
e0poq in
breadth
td Uyog in height
Greek generally uses a genitive of the measurement with an accusative of respect (e.g. in length, breadth, etc.). The article is included with the accusative of respect:
reilog 6rr
otc0p6g m. otd8rov n. nopoodyyqq m.
a day's march a stade, 606 3lq English feet (in the plural can be either oi o'tdEror or td ot&6tcr) a parasang, 30 stades
it
I Practice sentences ll.rnslate into English or Greek as appropriate:
1 2
imtyet 6i f1 Ill.riroro tdrv @lBdv oto6ioug BB8opfrovro. (Thurydides 2.5.2) o0roOv d6i p6v (6ort) 06poug (ti1v oiritrv) ryDletvilv (= cool) dlgetv, f 6i 6i letprirvog &l"eervflv (: warm); (Xenophon, Memorabilta 3.8.e)
3 dgtrero rbg Ilep6irrov roi 6q tilv Xol.rt6triv. (Thucydides 4.79.1) 4 roi roftrlv piv qv flp6pov roi qv dnto0oov vrirtcr iv tpul"orfr eilov
5 6 7 8
oitoUq oi A0qvoior tfl 6' riotepo(g ... c&l,l,o 8teoreuri(ovro dlq ig nl,oOv. (Thurydides 4.38.4) | shall stay in Athens for five days. My sister died during the night and was buried the next day. He sailed to Athens and went to Pericles. The queen built a road a hundred stades long.
Participles | 137 |
But note: 6rop6od.g 6qn
Puticiples
yel.&ocrg dqn
... ...
he said on oath ... he said with a laugh ...
In these two cases he will have respectively sworn and laughed before he started speaking, but the actions of the participles presumably continued while he spoke. In the first example, his words were the
I ran away from the collapsing house. Newly rebuilt, the house will last a hundred years. Hanging in the art gallery, I saw the picture. Participles are verbal adjectives, i.e. they are formed from verbs and so describe an action, but they are adjectives and so in Greek almost always agree with a noun or pronoun. If you think about the ambiguity in the third sentence above, you will see that English indicates agreement through the order of the words. In Greek agreement is indicated through the case, gender and number of the agreeing words.
o
The present participle describes an action going on at the same time as the main verb:
rair a En parle ot potrl
ydtv.
He did this while he was general.
o
The future participle unsurprisingly looks forward in time. It is likely to express purpose, often in conjunction with rbg: oul.l,oppdver K0pov rbg dnortevdrv. (Xenophon, Anabasis I.1.3) He arrests Cyrus in order to put him to death. is frequently omitted: 6 6'dvi1p oir{g loyrbq {26eto 0qp6oov. (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.5.24) But her husband had gone to hunt hares.
After verbs of motion
o
rbg
The aorist participle usually communicates an action which has occurred before the action of the main verb: 8ernvrlooq 6y6per. (Thurydides 3.112.2) After having his dinner, he went off.
expression of his oath; in the second, they were accompanied by laughter.
.
The perfect participle communicates a present state which has resulted from a past event, e.g.
oi reOvrlr6teg those who have died, i.e. the dead
I More uses of the participle Note the following uses of the participle:
-
(a) with dre, oio or oiov (inasmuch as, seeing that) dre. olo and oiov are used when the writer advances the cause as a
r.rrrsal
fact:
tf npotepoig 6o'nipoq drc flon8oiog dnd toO otpcrton66ou, oiov 6i 6rd 1p6vou dtpiyp6voq dop6vroq fro 6ni tdq ouvrl0etg 6rotprB&q. (Plato, Charmides 753a) We had come in the evening of the day before from the camp in Potideia and, inasmuch as I had arrived after a long absence, I went with pleasure to my usual haunts. - (b) with rbq (on the grounds that) rirg implies that the cause is the thought or statement of the main verb without suggesting that it is also the idea of the writer: iiropev
rov ... fleptrcL6tr dv oitlg eilov rbg neioovto o
Participles | 139 |
138 I Participles
'although'
:
with certain verbs
Kolrtp
Bnorrctipto 56 vrv ... roinep dvto 8uopevfl. (Sophocles, Aiax But I pity him, although he is my enemy.
The following verbs are used with participles:
I2l-2)
rulldvro I happen, am just now
Negative oir. comparison
- with
...
l"ovOdval I escape
riionep (as, as if)
(the) notice (of)
rirplo0vto ... riione p dl"X'otq dnr8errvripevot. (Xenophon, Anabasis
noprbv dtiylove.r He happened to be there. toirg
5.4.34) They danced as if they were showing off to others.
gov6o ro0 nor8dg €l"dvOsve B6orrov.
Negative otr.
He didn't realize he was entertaining his son's murderer.
(Herodotus 1.44)
conditional oir 6t rl"6rov eioa ^caya' (Aristophanes, Birds 1390) lf you listen, you will find soon out. Here rl6
qOdvro
rp6prov
lpcirpevoq
t\ratel,6co I continue, keep on 6rotel.ei piodlv. He continues to hate (or hating). 6ncd 1dp fttr6pdq ... pol6pevor
6rer6l,eoov. (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.3.2) For they continued fighting for seven days.
fi"pyopa* | begin
dp(opor 6i dnd tflq iotprrflq l"6ycov. (Plato, Symposlum 186b)
having taken
(+ dat.)
(Plato, Republic 375c) They will do this themselves first. cdv gil.ov rp61cov. He beat his friend in running.
(mainly wllh inanimate obiects)
)"opriv
oritoi rp0rloovrar aDtd 8pooovtcq.
d
leading, bringing carrying, bringing
dyrov
I anticipate, get in first
But I shall begin by talking about
using
medicine.
dlcov otpottdv dgrrveitnr. (Thucydides 4.30.2) He arrives wilh (literally, having) an army.
Inyol,
I stop, cease
nqOoot l"6youoo. (Euripides, Hippolytw 706) Stop talking!
I hold out, endure
o0r dv6(optrr (dloo.
'[(ruop0t
Borl te lpcbpevor (Thucydides 2'84'3) and with (Literally, using) a shout
rivflopor
with the article - note pp. 723 &I29.
(Euripides, Hipp oly tus
(IiteraLy, end ure I ivi ng).
oirofwcov. The Athenians who are in the city despise those who live in the country.
35
4)
I shall not hold out and live on
Study the following sentence: oi A0lvoior oi €v tfr n6l'er dvteq rntoqpovoOor tdv toUq dypoilg
I
I'his can also mean: 'He was actually there.' I riplopor f6yerv means simply 'l begin to speak'
Participles I
I t+o ; e.rti.lpt.t
EI
goiverot t&),n0fl Lfyrov.
I am obviously
He is evidently speaking the truth'
+
the participle, appearance and reality coincide. As in English, the use of the infinitive suggests that the appearance may be false:
Wittr
qoivetor tdl,n0fi l,61erv. He appears to be soeaking the truth (but may not be)'
g0vepog
€tp1 ])
fl6optrr t6pnopcn
|
. .-: |'::,i.3ffil*"iu"*';"'""n (pt"ro, Repubtic 32Bd)
| am pleaseo' enloy
J
1
|. I enjoy talking to very old men.
oYovoKrt(D I lamdispleased, cluoPot ,(o^erlcDq
Here, otporqyo0vtog agrees with K6vcovog, who is neither the subject nor
the object of the main verb. His name is independent of the clause in which it sits. Compare: toircov 1"e106vtrov dv6otrloov. (Xenophon, Anab asis 3 .3 .l) After these things had been said (Iiterally, these things having been said), they got up. 'l'he technical term for this is absolute (from the Latin word for 'loosed
I am angrY
perop6l.opor
I am sorry,
regret
K0pog ... dv6Bq dni td dpq oi8evdq rr,rl.5ovtog. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.22) Cyrus went up to the mountains without opposition (Literally, no one h
i
nderi ng)
.
I Accusative absolute
annoyed qtp(o JI
dpf(opor
phrases such as this, both
noun and participle are in the genitive case.
I am obviousty
L,
I('1p(D
Often, however, the participial phrase (i.e. the noun + the participle) is independent of the structure of the rest of the sentence: roi ro0r' dnp&10r1 K6vrovoq ... otpoclyo0vtog. (Isocrates 9.56) And these things were done while Conon was general. (literally, These things were done, Conon being the general.)
from'or'set free from', i.e. 'independent'). In
eipt
6fl1.6g
lai
petep6l.ovto tdg onov8dq o0 6e[6Pevor. (Thurydides 4.27.3) TheY were sorrY theY had not acceoted the truce.
Where the participle has no subject, i.e. with impersonal verbs (see pp. 190-1), the accusative absolute is used in place of the genitive ,rlrsolute: 66ov
6(6v nop6v npooflrcov
pet6v
I Genitive absolute In all the examples above, the participles have agreed with the subject or object of a verb. They could also have agreed with a noun or pronoun which forms some other part of the clause it belongs to, as in this sentence:
A0r1vo(e eipr petd oou,
pettrp6l.ov napt,yov
nopaol6v 66(ov siprlp6vov d611l,ov dv
. it being necessary I it being possible ' it being fitting there being a share it being a matter of regret it being in one's power an opportunity having presented itsell since it was resolved since it has been stated ortold it being unclear
I
Participles | 1a3
I i+z ; er*i.ipt.t 8uvordv 6v dbrivtltov dv oiolpdv dv rtrl,dv 6v
it it it it
being being being being
8
possible impossible shameful fine or honourable
I
For more information on the impersonal verbs, see pp. 190-1.
ti
6n, 6p0q i(ov &rol.6oor, o$r 6ni ro0to iil"Oopev; (Xenophon, Anabosis 2.5.22) Why indeed, when it was possible for us to destroy you, did we not proceed to do it?
perep6),ovt6 re 6tr perd rd 6v II6l"q, ro1"dr6 noptrol6v, o0 [uv6Bqoov. (Thucydides 5.I4.2) And they regretted that after what had occurred at Pylos, when a favourable opportunity had presented itself, they had not come to terms. Note that words such as &ts, rbq and roinep (see pp. 137-8) can be used in conjunction with the accusative absolute.
I Practice sentences Tfanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 flpeiq oiire ouvr1l.Oopev 6q Bootl,ei nol"epf oovteg oiite dnopeu6pe0o€ni (: against) Booil.6e. (Xenophon, Anabasis
2.3.2r)
2 3
o06eiq
td pei(ov (rardv) oipr'loerot ilov td dl.dttov (oipeio0ot).
(Plato, Protogoras 35 8d) rai vOv piv, dgq, 8ernveite nop'fpiv. Serrvr'loovteq 6i dnel"s6vete 6nor 6ptv 00p6g. (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 3.1.37) 6 6t K0pog, &rc naig d6v rcoi rprl.6rol.oq roi grl"6dpoq, fl8eto tf otol"fl. (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 1.3.3) n6g 6fto, Airqq oiio'qq, 6 ZeUg oilr &n6l,ro),ev, tdv not6p'oitoO 6rloo9; (Aristophanes, Clouds 904-51 ouppoul"efro 66 oot roirep verbtepog riiv. (Xenophon, Education of C-yrus 4.5.32) dvilp ydp 6ooq ii6etor 1,6yrov dei, l"6l,q0ev o0tdv toig (uvo0orv ov pnprig. (Sophocles, fragment
(Pearson))
103
t0 ||
l2 t3 l4
The Athenians killed Socrates on the grounds that he had corrupted the young men. Inasmuch as it was still winter, the young men did not go to the gymnasium. Since it is impossible for me to marry you, I advise you to go home' After setting out at dawn the queen of the Amazons reached the city with a thousand women. The girl is obviously highly intelligent. The boy, on the other hand' appears to be stuPid. Since the night was dark, he escaped unnoticed by the soldiers. lf you do not know anything (use participle), how can you continue teaching? (not... anYthing : Pq66v)
|
Other deictic Pronouns are:
Pronouns
ro16o6e, to166e, tor6v6e
of such.a
J so much, so
roo6o6e, toof16e, too6v6e toroOtog, toro6tq, toroOto
rooo0tog,
kind I pointing forward many, f to what follows ) I so great of such.a kind _ I pointing backward mucn' so many' to what came before I so I I so great _
toooftl, tooo0to
)
1 | Deictic pronouns o0to6, olirq, ro0to this
p. 49)
(see
66e, fi6e, fsee
6reivoq, drelvq, €reivo that (there) (see p. 49)
r66e this
p.49)
(here) [66e is often used in tragedy to refer to the speaker]
roi 6 K0pog, drofocrq toO froBpr5a toro0to, tord8e npdq oitdv dl'e(e' (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 5.2.3I) And after hearing such words from Gobryas, Cyrus addressed him as follows. study the declension of o0t6q on p. 46. It is important to distinguish it frorno0roq (p.49), especially in the feminine nominative singular and plural:
In prose, these pronouns are regularly used with the definite article, and are placed outside the article and the noun, i.e in the predicative position (see pp. 125-6):
oilrq
f1
yuvfl
this woman
c0t6q + o0to6 -+
r
6 dvqp ireivog that man
Since these pronouns point to what they describe, they are called deictic
(from 6eirv0pr (l show)).
sg.
f. nom'
uitoi
these infamous informers (they are not actually present, though the article is used)
.
He spoke as follows.
o0tog points to something near or something just mentioned, Breivog to something further away. Thus dreivog can mean 'the former' and o0toq can mean 'the latter', e.g.
ireivoq pdv orl"r1qp6g, o0tog 66 rpogepr1g roi rol,dq roi rrlv dryrv. (Plato, Euthydemus 27lb)
dyoOdq
But the former is without grace while the latter is well-developed, handsome and good-looking.
otrooi (this
Pl.
o0tot
toftouq toig oDrogdvttlq (Plato, Crito 45a)
tri6e elnev.
'-i' can be added to o6rog in all its forms for emphasis, e.g. man here).
o0tf1 oiicl
o0toq and sometimes Brceivoq can be used to mean 'well-known': dretvog @our06i61q fopfloq o8tog the celebrated Gorgias that famous Thucydides
56e and its adverb dr6e (thus) usually point forward to what follows:
&1"1.'
f. nom.
Note the exclamatory use of o0toq: o6toq, ti noreiq; (Aristophanes, Frogs 198) You there, what are You doing?
Cf.
ro0t' dreivo. (Aristophanes, Acharnians That's
itl
(Iiterally, That's what this (is)!)
47)
|
1+o I eronoun.
g
2 | otn6q o0u1 airr6 o0r6q (see p. 46) has three different meanings, depending on how it is used: 1 In the accusative, genitive and dative, oir6g means 'him', 'her', 'it' or
'them': dprir
oirflq
sentence.
2
Standing by itself or outside the article and the noun, o$c6q means
'self':
ttr0to Cnoreire o,irdq 6 q yDvl
oiltoi
orpoo1l6q
ourl
A common Greek idiom using oit6q in the dative plural (usually without the article) suggests inclusive accompaniment (see p' 20):
piov toitcov [tdrv vedrv] otuoiq &v6p6otv (Thurydides 4'14'1) one of these ships with all its crew (with its men and all)
d,nfrrervq, o0t6v
I love her I killed him N.B. With this meaning, it is a pronoun and never appears in the nominative. Unless emphatic, it does not stand at the beginning of
oirtoig X ='X and all'
a
etnev ... flrerv eiq tdg t6(erg o0toiq orerp&vorg. (Xenophon' Education of CYrus 3.3.40) He told them to come to their posts, crowns and all'
you were doing these things yourselves
the general himself the woman herselfl
For this meaning, the article is not necessary, as with names, e.g.
3 | Personal pronouns and their adjectives
@our06i6qq or)t6q Thucydides himself
These are given on P. 46'
Note the use of or)169 with ordinal numbers, e.g.
tpitoq orlr6g n6pntog o0166
himself the third (1.e., with two others) himself the fifth (1.e., with four others)
oir6g is always the chief person. When it is preceded by the definite article, o,r)t6g means 'the same':
ro0t& (: rd oitri) I the same woman the same thingsl For this meaning, the article is necessary,
oDrl Tuvll
'l'he adjectives generally come after the article, the pronouns generally after lhe article + noun group, e.g.
i i
on
pnrnp i of
pitnp
d prlrqp oo0 f1 notpig flpdlv
I
i
Your mother
)
our country
utrro0,oStflg,o0to0(pl.oritdrv)his,her,its(pl'thei0(literally,ofhim' ctc.) come outside the article and noun: 6pd tdv gil.ov oitoO (tt0tiq). I see his (her) friend. (Plato, Protagoras 310d) lryvciror
I Note how in these usages the word order is the same in Greek and English.
|
1481 Pronornt
4 | Reflexive pronouns
ln Attic prose these reflexive forms are generally used as indirect reflexives. In Homer, Herodotus and the Attic poets, they are generally simply personal pronouns, though they may be reflexives: o0tiro 66 oi eUdowr €n6oq dvetpoq. (Herodotus 1.34) and very soon a dream came to him in his sleep (literally, to him
These are given on p. 47.2 They refer back to the subject of their sentence or clause.
1v60r oeour6v. Know thyself.
sleeping).
6i6ropi oor €poutdv 6o0l"ov. (Xenophon, Education of Cynu 4.6.2) I give myself to you as a slave.
'Op6otqq . .. dneroev A0qvoioug 6outdv rntriyerv. (Thurydides 1
.111 . 1)
Orestes persuaded the Athenians to restore him.
In the last example the reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject not of its own clause (€ourdv rotdyerv) but to that of the main clause. We call reflexive pronouns used in this way indirect reflexives. Cf. Philip gave Olympias the crown which the Macedonians had given to
El
'f't u genitive of reflexive pronouns as well as of deictic pronouns takes ihe attributive position (see p. 125) when it is possessive:
dn6rtetvev Etrutdv r(l €outo0 ([rper. He killed himself with his own sword.
him.
.
Note the following reflexive forms: singular
dat.
oi
to himself, herself, itself
plural
acc. og0q themselves I gen. orp6rv of themselves I often joined with o0ro69, etc. dat. o
of Cyrus 2.4.7) They said that the king of the Indians had sent them. rel,e6ouot ydp ipeq rorvf petd orpdrv roi petd Koptv0icov nol,epeiv. (Andocides 3.27) For they urge us to make war in common with them and the Corinthians.
'
See also
the description of the middle voice on pp. xii & 60.
5 | The indefinite pronoun (a,go u,) rr{. tt (some one; any, some; a certain, a, an) is an enclitic, i.e. it will' if it' lxusible, put its accent on the last sytlable of the word in front of 'l'ht refore it cannot stand first word in its word-group. some one says this ro0to l"6yer trg dlvOpcon66
ttq
dv0pronoq div0pon6qtlqberv6q 6erv6g ttq
some/a certain man
l an alarming J- -- '
man
As you can see, r1q can perform the function of the indefinite article. see
p, xi.
With adjectives, adverbs and numbers, ttq may suggest that the word to which it is joined should not be taken completely literally: 6erv6g ttq 6p
They killed some thirty (about thirty).
|
150 | Pronorn,
Pronouns
6 | Other pronouns o
dl"?'r[?,ouq, -d€, p. 47)
-a
I Practice sentences
one another, each other (plural, not nominative
_ see
6' ei66tqv (dual, see pp. 232-3) dl,l,fl.ouq f yuvil roi 6 Appo6ritoq, flond(ovto dl"1"r1l"ouq. (Xenophon, EcLucation of Cyrus
6.r.47)
When Abradatas and his wife saw one another, they embraced each other. d1"1.o9,
-q,
-o
other
pvoireq oi dl"l,ot yuvaireq dl"l,ar
6
6i
Bpoo'i8ng r@
(all) the other women, the rest of the women
a
dl,l.og followed by another form of the same word can make a two-fold statement, as follows (cf. English 'different' - 'different people do different things'):
Note also: 6 6tepoq, -d,
oi
Etepor
Srootog,
-r1,
-ov
one or the other of two one of two groups
-ov -ov
each
Erdcepog, -d,
6rdtepor dpq6repor
-ov pqoctepoi, -a, -ov ; o066repog, -c,
.|
4 I 7
dll,og d)"),o l"6yer. (Xenophon, Anabasls 2.1.15) one says one thing, another says another (Literally, other things). &l.l,or dl.}"o0ev some from one place, others from another
o
3
oiriov
(LYsias i.4)
oi roiq o0toiq oiei nepi t6rv oitdv l,61ouq l.6yovteg nrot6tepoi eiot rdrv 6roqepop6vcov otpiotv o0tolg. (Antiphon 5.50) oi 6d flttritpevor dpo 6crwo6g te roi td Eoutdrv n&vto dnoBdll'ouotv' (Xenophon, Educatioru of Cyrus 3.3'45) ivtoO0o l,6yetor Ar6l.l.olv dr8eipor Mopo6trv vir{oog dpi(ovtd oi nr:pi oo
latter very wise.
piv dl"l"q otpot@ f1o61o(ev ..., Erotdv 6i
hundred peltasts.
2
5
other women
nel,toordg npontpnel (Thucydides 4. 111. l) Brasidas did nothing with the rest of the army but sent forward
.
ll,rnslate into English or Greek as appropriate: I rolg noidoq toUq dtrroUg flo1Dve roi €pi cr0tdv UBproev eig trlv
rilv dpilv eiorrbv.
rbg
r
| 151 |
each (one) of two each (one) of two groups both. either neither of the two
When used with nouns, all of the above, apart from the first two, are placed outside the article and the noun.
8 g t0
The celebrated Socrates remembered these words: 'Know thyself '' | (my)self do not always do the same things' My father gave you a book which you must give back to him. Opinions differ.
Sequence of tenses and moods
| *listoric sequence
Sequence of tenses and moods
Tense of verb in main
irrrperfect .x)rist pluperfect
In Greek, the tense of the main verb can determine whether a subjunctive or optative is used in a subordinate clause where one of those moods is needed. A similar process can operate in English too: I am wooing the rich widow so that I can/mav enjoy her money. I was wooing her so that I could/might enjoy her money. We call this pattern of agreement sequence of tenses and moods and
it
falls into two divisions, which we call primary (the main verb is usually in a present or future tense) and historic or secondary (the main verb is in a past tense).
I Primary sequence Tense of verb in main clause
Mood of verb in subordinate clause
present future
I
perfect (describes a present
future
perfect
|
state) |
,
.
subiunctive
)
Main verbs in the subjunctive and the imperative also fall into this category.
| 153 |
clause
Mood of verb in subordinate clause
ior,",*"
Main verbs in the optative also fall into this category' (6-)' lrr tlrt,indicative, the historic tenses all begin with an augment
E
you will discover that a subjunctive can be used in purpose clauses p. 180. ,rnd clauses of fearing in historic sequence. see pp. 174-5 and
Indirect
lndirect statement
.tut.t.nll
I 551
lfotc
I
ln historic sequence (i.e. after a main verb in a past tense - see still be in the same tense 1rp. 152-3), lhe optative can be used. It will as the indicative would have been (i.e. the tense actually used): ulnov 6tr 6 (Dil"rnnog PdrPog eiq.
Direct speech I am going to
Indirect speech
Athens.
I have gone to
Athens.
I said I was going to Athens. I told her that I had gone to Athens.
I shall go to Athens. I promised that I would go to Athens. An indirect statement comes after a verb in which the voice, mind or one oftlrc senses is used (e.g. san hear, discover, see, observe, know, think) followed by 'that' or with 'that' understood, e.g. I think that I am intelligent. I think he is a fool.
It can be seen from the examples above that in English the words of direct speech are liable to be changed when they are converted into indirect speech. The Greek words usually change too, but this will depend on which of three different Greek constructions they follow. Here are the English equivalents of these three Greek constructions:
I 2 3
I think that she is a fool. I believe her to be a fool.
| regard her as being foolish.
2
I said that PhiliP was stuPid. 'l'he optative is less 'vivid' than the indicative when used in sentences like this. In the example above, if 6oti had been used instead of eir1, it would have lent emphasis to the assertion of Philip's stupidity' {irr and rirg are chiefly found after },6yro (l say) and e?nov (l said), and sornetimes after dyy6l,1.r,l (l announce).
2 | The infinitive construction
Altt.r verbs of sayirug, thinking, believing, hoping, promising and swearing' the verb in the indirect statement goes into the infinitive in the tense of the rllrtct speech (the tense actually used by the speaker). it is 11 the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of the main verb, it will be rarely, happens which is included, If it in Greek. omitted tuilrally ln the nominative. If the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the rrraln verb, it will be in the accusative. Negative oi - as it would have lrt n in the direct speech which is being reproduced.
ulltq
rprloiv A0{vo(e npoolcopfloetv'
This woman says that she will come to Athens.
1|
6tl
and rbg
After verbs of saying (though not qqpi), the clause of the indirect statement is usually introduced by 6tr or rbg. dncoq is also used, most often in poetry and Xenophon. Negative o0. The verb in the indirect statement remains in the tense of the direct speech (the tense actually used by the speaker), e.g. einov 6tr A0f1vo(e npoo6plopor. I said that I was on my way to Athens. oitrir iiyyerlxr rbq A0flva(e np6oerpr. I told him that I would (ltteraLy, shall) come to Athens.
[Ki"6rov] o0r
d
o$t6g, d].],' dretvov
[Niriov] otpotqyeiv'
(ThucYdides 4.28.2)
lcleonl said that it was not himself who was the general, but that man lNiciasl. oscot dgooov tilv d8el,rpilv dptr dnel.0eiv. These women said that their sister'had just gone away.
I tso I tnOir..t
Indirect
statement
The imperfect indicative becomes the present infinitive.
c6te dBaoil,euev 6 Aopeiog. Darius was king at the time. dgq r6re pootl,e6erv rdv Aopelov. He said that Darius was king at the time. The pluperfect indicative becomes the perfect infinitive.
dqq ... Xpnpo0' 6out@ toirq @qpoiouq BmrerqpDl6vor. (Demosthenes
3 | The participle construction t'r verbs of knowing and perceiving, the verb in the indirect statement is ftrurrtl in the participle. The participle is in the tense of the direct speech ltlr(. tense actually used by the speaker). If the subject of the participle is Uc same as that of the main verb, it is either omitted or is in the notninative. If it is different, it is in the accusative. The participle agrees in r,trt, number and gender with its subject. Negative oi. Alf
19.27) He said that the Thebans had proclaimed a reward for him.
dntlel.fl opeoO' d 6 604 y 6povt eg 6vt eq. (Eurip ides, We have gladly forgotten that we are old.
The Greek
for'l
say ...
not'is oil 94pr:
189)
lyvor tilv Eopol"ipv 6oop6vqv. (Thucydides 2.13) He knew that the invasion would take place. pfpvrlpor Kptrig tQSe (uv6vro oe. (Plato, Charmides l56a) I remember that you were together with Critias here.
66oetv por qv BiBl,ov. He says that he will not give me the book.
oU
2
B occhae
ot6o oritdv pdrpov 6vtc. I know that he is stupid.
Note
I
stt.!!51
The verbs dl,ni(co (l hope), 0ntolv6opot (l promise), dnetl,6
The following verbs are among those which are followed by the infinitive construction:
qnFi f176opor oTpor, oiopor 6o16ot vopi(co
I
lsay
I
I
j
I think, consider
0nol.oppdvor rinonte6ro
I suppose I suspect
eird(ro
I guess
nrote6co dnrotr6ot 6pol"o16co
I believe, feel sure that, trust I do not believe, disbelieve I agree
In the fourth example, the present participle is used to replace the lnrp('rfect 'actually used'. This is regular. In the same way, the perfect pdrllciple replaces the pluperfect 'actually used'.
lht I
When drorio (l hear) is used in the context of hearing something actually happening, it is followed by the genitive and the participle:
{xouoov
tr1q
Kiprrlg
Qr6o6o1q.
They heard Circe singing. Compare:
drofol s0rdv nop6vto. I hear that he is present. drco6ro is regularly followed by the genitive of the person lrcard from and the accusative of the thing lword.
I tsS ; tnoir..t statement
2
Indirect statement |
When oi6tr (l know) and ytyvriro, co (l get to know) are used in the context of knowledge of a foct, they are often followed by the 6tr or rbq construction (1 above): floov 6tr eionl,6ouorv oi nol,6pnor ei6 rdv l,rp6vo. They knew that the enemy were sailing into the harbour. The idea is that they did not simply know but had been told of the fact; it had been spoken to them. Hence the same construction as that
with l,6yro is used. These verbs are among those which are usually followed by the participle construction. The asterisked verbs can be followed by the infinitive
I Subordinate clauses in indirect statement She said that she hated the king because his breath smelt. In one interpretation of this sentence, the subordinate clause 'because his brt'ath smelt' is part of what she said. In that case, it is part of the indirect rldtement. Subordinate clauses in indirect statement, regardless of the ronstruction used, follow these rules: t If the main verb is primary (i.e. present, future or perfect - see p. 152), the mood and tense of the verb in the subordinate clause do not change.
construction as well:
iniotopor iwo6ro pov0dvro
I learn, get to know
nuv0d,vopor* yryvrilorco
I perceive, realize I don't know
dyvo6ro d,ro6ro*
I hear I remember (literally, I have been reminded) I forget
p6pvqpclr
inrl,ov06vopor (6nr)6eirvDpr (dno)tpoivro
dry6l,l.ro*
2
2.s.5)
dyvrov
oioOdvopot*
6q).6ro
.. ert6i. . . norf oerv 0 pflt' ciol6vlv 1rflr' &6o(iov abtip rpiptt. (Demosthenes 19.41) He says he will do whatever does not bring shame or dishonour to him' lf the main verb is historic (i.e. in a past tense - see p. 153), the mood and tense of the verb in the subordinate clause may be retained. (Thurydides . . . Egaoav . . . toirg dv6pog dnorteveiv olDc" {,youcr (dlvtoq. .
I know
oiSo
15f
I
i fshow
)
I announce (usually with 6n or rbg)
Herodotus uses both the infinitive and the participle constructions' after nuv0dvopor in the same sentence:
oi ... fl6poot nu06pevor oovdlioQat. toilg floiovog roi tilv npdq Ool.dooqq BoBol"rlv gofufiooowag,... rpdnovtor. (Herodotus 5. 1 5) The Persians, discovering that the Paionians had assembled and were guarding the approach by sea, ... turned away.
They said that they would kill the men whom they had alive. It may also be put into the optative (keeping the same tense), i.e. in this example dlotev. However, past tenses of the indicative may not be put into the optative. They remain unchanged.
fi),nt(ov "cobgXrrel"oDg to,6tq, otq peze nipyavto, &navt{oeo0or. (Thucydides 7.80.6) They hoped that the Sikels whom they had sent fof would meet them there. The fotlowing is included here for the sake of completeness' It can only be understood once the indeftnite corlstruction (see pp. 195-6) has been mastered.
lf a subjunctive with dv becomes optative, dv is dropped, d&v, 6tav, etc. becoming ei, dte, etc.
I
tOO I tnOir..t statement
6tr inrriOeoOor p6l,l,orev o0t{1, 6n6te dndlot td otpdteupcr. (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 7.5.2)
d(el"Ocbv 66 trg o0c6pol,oq einev
Direct and indirect questions
A deserter came out and said that they intended to attack him when he led his forces away. (The 'when' clause in the direct speech would have been 6n6rov im&yqqrd orpdreupo).
dnerptvoto 5tr pov0dvorev d oir iniororvto. (PlaIo, Euthydemus 276e) He answered that they were learning what they did not understand.
I Direct questions
g
The same rules apply to subordinate clauses within indirect questions (see pp. 164-6) and indirect commands (see pp. 170-l).
What are you thinking? Where are you going? You aren't going to say that to her, are you?
(lrr.r.k has two ways of asking single direct questions. In both of them the vrrb is regularly in the indicative.
I Practice sentences Translate into English or Greek as appropriate: I fire 6'dyy6l"1"rov ... trq rbq'El"drero roteil.qntor. (Demosthenes l 8.1 69)
2 3
4 5 6 8
r&naru iterprbplv o0tQ 8errvfvor 6tt olorto piv eivor oog6q, elrl 6'oi1. (Plato, Apology 2lc) l,6yer npdg o0rdv f1 noig' '6 poor),e0, 8roBeBl,qp6vog 6nd Apd,oroq o0 pcv0dverg;' (Herodotus 3.1) 6p6oog d,n6[erv oirc6', 69 Tpoiav p' iiyet (Sophocles, Pltiloctetes
94r) o0 ydp ijSeoov ur)rdv re0vr1r6to. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.10.16) l,6youor 6i1 oritoior ro0ro, E6pllq rind peyal,o
Tlanslate in two different ways: I said that I was not willing to give my brother the book. I promise not to betray the city to the enemy. 10 I thought that you knew that I was stupid. 11 I realize that he is a coward, but I believe that he will help us. 12 He said that he was not a philosopher himself but Plato (was). (use
7,
I
gnpi)
Oprn or'wh-'questions a question (e.g. who? wlrcrrl why? etc.), the word is likely to be one of those in column 1 below:
ll tlrc question is introduced by a word that asks
l.
Direct (and indirect)
riq, ri
who, what
who, what?
6n6tepoq, -0, -ov which of two ' 6rioiog, -Tl, -ov
ntitepoq, -d, -ov which of two?
noio6, -q, -ov
of whai sort
of what sort?
6n6ooq, -rl, -ov
nilooq, -rl, -ov
how great, how much
how great? how much?
6n6oor, -or, -o
n
how many
how many?
6nou
ro0
wnere
where?
n60ev from where? where ...
noi to where? where ...
2. lndirect 6otrg, iicq, 6tr
from?
to?
6n60ev from where, where
".
6nor to where, where ... to
from
I tOZ ; Oirect
Direct and indirect questions
and indirect questions
ttoT6 when?
noq how?
d, 6td ri why?
2
6n6re
oi Bo6leo0e loperlerv; or oi Bo6l"eo0e lopeferv; You do want to dance, don't you? Surely you want to dance? dp'
6ncrrg
now
6rd
ti
oiroOv oor 6orei ... obpgopov etvor; (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 2.4.1s)
why
Some examples: Tr fipaxxar; What's he doing?
n6re frl.0ev;
3
When did he come?
pr1
6td ci to6tqv tilv luvoiro dyqpog; Why did you marry this woman?
4
If the question is not introduced by one of the interrogative pronouns, adjectiy.es or adverbs in column 1 above, see which of the following applies in the Greek: 1 A question beginning with &po or fl (the latter is chiefly poetic) implies nothing as to the answer expected, which can be either yes or no.
Am I a prophet? fr t60vr6ev Oi8inou nadlp; (Sophocles, Oedipus TJtrannus 943) Do you mean that Oedipus'father is dead?
However, just as in English, a question can be indicated by the sense or context, without the reinforcement of &po or fl. Look out for (and don't forget to use) the question mark (J.
tr
vedrtepov
dylel.eiq; (Plato, Protagoras
310b)
No bad news, I hope?
Creek n-, English wh- (and Latin qu-) are etymologically related.
Other questions
So doesn't it seem to you to be advantageous? If the question begins with &po pn, pr1 or p6rv, it will expect the answer no or imply that the suggestion made is difficult to accept. &po pn Boril"eo0e lopeberv; or pi1 Bo6leo0e lopefetv; You don't want to dance, do you? Surely you don't want to dance?
n6ooug noi8og dler 6 Boorl,efq; How many children does the king have?
EI
If the question begins with dpo oi (dp' o0), oOroOv or oi, it will expect the answer yes.
wnen
ti,
| 163 |
Note that pdrv does not always have this negative force: pdrv flrr06rog tt yflpoq eipyootnr v6ov; (Euripides, Hippolytus 794) Nothing has happened to old Pittheus, has it? (The speaker fears that it has, but hopes that it has not.) If a question begins with n6tepov (n6tepo) followed, though not immediately, by ii (whether ... or), it is a double question: dQg [or)tdv] dplerv fl d],],ov roOiorqg &vt' o0to0; (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 3.7.12) Do you allow him to rule or do you appoint someone else instead of
n6tepov
him?
iyfi, dl K0pe, dpetvov eivor oUv tQ o@ dyo0r{r tdq npcopitrg noreio0ar fl oirv tr; on (IpiS; (Xenophon, Education of C-yrus 3.1.1s) Do you think, Cyrus, that it is better to inflict the punishments for your own good or to your own detriment? You need not find a translation for n6tepov (n6tepo) in direct questions. It simply informs you that a second half to the question is coming up. n6'cepa 6'
I fO+ I oirect
EI
Direct and indirect questions
and indirect questions
n6tepou (n6tepo) is often omitted: €Qq nl,outeiv ii n6vqto roreig; (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 3.1.12) lf he has a lot of money, do you let him (go on) be(ing) rich or make
flv lpflpotcr nol"l.d d1q,
I 165 I
If the indicative is used, the verb in the indirect question is in the tense of the direct question (the tense actually used). If the optative is used, it too will be in the tense actually used by the questioner. dpcotdrvteg ei
l"qotoi elorv (Thurydides
1.5.2)
asking if they were pirates
{ prbtqoo ei por5}.orto (Bo6l.etcn) loperietv. I asked if he wanted to dance.
him poor?
ipotQ 6tr Boril.eo0c. He is asking what you want.
Deliberative questions
(pero o0tdv ei Bl.n0eiq (60)'n0n). (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus
In questions where the speaker asks what he is to do or say, the present or aorist subjunctive is used. Negative pf1. elnorpev il oildlpev; (Euripides, Ion758) Are we to speak or keep silent?
8.3.30) He asked him
noi rpdrcropot; not nopeu06; (Euripides, Hecaba lO99) Where can I turn? Where can I go to? Deliberative questions can be introduced by 06l"ere in poetry):
poflet or Bo6l.eo0e (06l"erg,
Boril"er ein
if
he had been hit.
i6ropev &p' oritrooi yiyvetor rdvto. (Plato, Phaedo 70d) Let us see whether everything is produced exactly like this.
l)ouble indirect questions: n6tepov (n6rcpa) . .n
ri ...ri ... elte ...
..
I
I
dire...
whether ... or ...
)
6tqprilto tdv K0pov n6tepov Bo6l.otto (Forll,etor) p6vetv ii dnt6vor. (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 1.3.15) She asked Cyrus whether he wanted to stay or go away.
_
N0te that a deliberative subjunctive (see p. 164) in an indirect question in lristoric sequence can either remain in the subjunctive or be replaced by an
I Indirect questions
(lptative, e.g.
Socrates asked his wife whv she nagged him so much.
A verb in which Ihe votce, ears, mind or one of the senses is used (e.g. ask, know, deliberate, discover) followed by a word which asks a question (who? when? why?, etc.) is followed in Greek by an interrogative pronoun plus a verb in the indicative, though in historic sequence (see pp. 152-3) the optative may be used - with a less 'vivid' force than the indicative. (Cf. Indirect statement with 6xt and rbq (pp. 15a-5).) The interrogatives used in direct questions (column 1 above, pp. 16l-2) can be used, but the indirect interrogative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs (column 2 above) are more commonly found. Note that ei (less frequently d,pc) = whether, if.
6pdlvteq 6i or)toirg oi
rotoro6orootv
fll"ototfq dnerl.qpp6vouq €Boul,ebovto eite dlouotv, €pnprloovteq td o1rr1po, eite tr
r!5onep
dl"l"o lptlorowot. (Thucydides 2.4.6) Seeing that they were cut off, the Plataeans deliberated whether they should burn them as they were, by setting fire to the house, or dispose of them in some other waY.
'l'lrt verbs in the indirect question could have been rorqrofoerov and 11rf1oarvto.
I
tOO ; Oirect and indirect questions
Direct and indirect
The negative in indirect questions is generally o0, but after ei both o0 and p{ are found:
iipeto tdv 8flpov ei o0r oiol6vorvro yel,dlvteq. (Aeschines 1.84) He asked the people whether they were not ashamed of laughing.
iipet6 pe ... €i pq p6pvrlpcr. (Aeschines 2.36) He asked me whether I did not remember.
12
| asked him how many soldiers he was bringing and what sort of hopes he had. l3 | asked him who the handsome man was. 14 Where are you now? Where did you set out from, and where are you going to? 15 Are you stupid? You are stupid, aren't you? Surely you aren't stupid? 16 Are you stupid or intelligent, (my) husband? 17 What
EI ait". verbs of saying, knowing and. perceiving
(but not after verbs of asking and rarely after negatives), the relative pronoun is often used: oi6d, o'e bg ei.
I know (you) who you are.
['l
know thee who thou art.']
Note how the subject of the subordinate clause has been extracted from it and made the object of the main verb. This happens in a number of constructions.
I Practice sentences Tianslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 olpor, dq &vr1p; &p' 'O6uoo6o4 rl,rior; (sophocles, Phlloctetes 976) 2 pdrv ti oe dSrrei flpoxoy6pog; (PIato, Protagoras 310d) 3 d,p' oi1 ilBprg tri6[e]; (Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 883)
4 ti oOv norrloovrog, 6 dv6peq A0rlvoior, 5 6 7
8 9 10 1
1
Kor€r(etporov{ooce toO E06v6pou; (Demosthenes 21.176) oipor, ti 6p6oor; noi q61o pnrpdq 16pnq; (Euripides, Medea1277) dl"l"d noO 6rl Bo6l.er ro0r(6pevor dvoyvdtpev; (Plato, Ptnedrus 22Be) dner6&v riq :*va gil,ff, n6re poq nor6pou gil.oq fiyvetor, 6 rprl.drv ro0
0nupri(ro x6repu rbq rpordlv Boorl"eirg oirei td 6nl"o il rbq 6rd grl,idv 6drpo. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.10) dnop6lv roi rprinorto drii l,6gov trvd roro
OuestioqlL
am I to do?
t8 I do not know who she is. 19 My wife asked me if I knew how (rbg) weak she was. 2O I am at a loss (about) whether she is stupid or intelligent.
21 22
| am aware of your intelligence (=l know you, how intelligent you are). My wife will tell you whether she is coming to Athens or not.
Commands, exhortations unq
Gommands, exhortations and wishes
*'th..-L 1 691
Note that 6norq and Snroq pr1 are used with the future indicative to express commands and prohibitions (often colloquially): vOv oOv 6noq oriroerg
p[e].
(Aristophanes, Cbuds II77)
So now save me!
pot ... pi1 6peig 6tr don td 8dtbero 6i6 6(. (Plato , Republic 337b) See to it that you do not tell me that twelve is twice six.
6nroq
It seems as if a word such as or6ner or oroneite (=see to it!) has dropped out in front of 6rcrog.
this. Don't do that. Let's do this. lf only we were doing this. I told her not to do that. Do
I Exhortations Flxhortations are expressed by the first person of the subjunctive. Negative
tq. iopev.
lCommands
Let's go!
Commands are expressed by the imperative: ),6ye. Speak!
noier roOto. Do this!
pn ToDro no1(Dptv. Let's not do this
polrbpeOo dv6peiroq. Let's fight bravely!
t1n6,.
Speak! €l.06tro 6e0po.
Let him come here!
V
26orp6vtorv.
Imperatives and subjunctives can be preceded by dye (dYete), tp6pe or iOr (come!). The singular form can still be used when the verb that
Let them rejoice!
follows is in the plural:
For the use of the aorist imperative as opposed to the present imperative, see the note on aspect on p. 61. The infinitive can be used instead of the second person of the imperative.
ir)'L' &ye pipvete ndvteg. (Homer, lli.ad 2.33I) But come on, all of you, wait!
I Prohibitions Prohibitions are expressed either by pf1 with the aorist subjunctive. pi1
pf1
with the present imperative or by
noiet toOto.
Do not do this! (1.e., Don't keep doing this!)
pq norrlor;q to0to. Do not do thisl For the distinction between the present and the aorist, see p. 61.
The third person of the aorist imperative can occur in prohibitions.
lWishes Wishes for the future are expressed by the optative, either with or without .rn introductory ei0e or ei ydp (if only!). Negative pr1. eiO', 6l,@ote o6, qil.og flpiv "y6voro. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4'1.38) lf only, you excellent fellow, you would become our friendl
pqr6tr (
Clnud.s 1255)
I tZO ; Corrrnds,
exhortations and wishes
Commands, exhortations and
Wishes for the present or past, if they are unattained, are expressed by the imperfect or the aorist indicative, introduced by ei0a or ei y&p, which cannot be omitted. The imperfect expresses present time or continuous past time; the aorist expresses past momentary time. Negative pf . ei0e roOto dnoier. lf only he was doing this!
ei ydp pl dlfvero to0ro. lf only this had not happened!
'l'he following take the dative with the infinitive: encourage, direct 6rorel"e6opor encourage, advise noporv6or bring a message to, command &y16l,l"or give orders nopoyy6),l,cr commanded (npo)einov
I Practice sentences
Wishes for the present and the past can also be expressed, chiefly in poetry, by riirpe)"ov (=ought - aorist of 6
r' eivor oi no]"].oi td p6yroro rord €pyd(eo0or. (PlaIo, Crita 44d) lf only, Crito, the majority were able to do the greatest evils! (present infinitive referring to now) ei ydp d6
'ltanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: I tiye 6{ &ro6oots roi dl.}"o. (Xenophon, Apology of Socrates 14) 2 pi1 rord toirg v6poug 8rrdoqte, dv8peq 8rrootoi' pl Boq0rloqte tQ nenov06o 6ervri' pr1 eioprelte . (Demosthenes 2l '2Il - the context is ironical.) 3 pf p' ir6i6oore toiq rpil,otq eivot rorflv. (sophocles, Electra395) 4 6ncoc,o0v doeo0e d[tor tflq 6]"eu0epit[q flg r6rtr1o0e. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.3)
-
roDto norfl oor. lf only he had done this! (aorist infinitive
5 dB6orv ... d),},r1l"orq
d6
ei ydp ro
-
referring to the past)
6 7 8 9
'lf only!'
10
I Indirect commands
I
Indirect commands are expressed by the infinitive, as in English. Negative trf (just as p4 would have been used in the direct command). rel,efro o0toig drir6vor. I order them to go away. dl"eyov o0toiq pi1 d6rreiv. (Thucydides 2.5.5) They told them not to act unjustly. Some useful verbs of co mmanding: rel,e6co oroer noporol,6ot encourage dnoToperico forbid (always with
wisfry1@
p{)
I
pi1 Oeiv 6p6pq dll,' 6v td(et 6neo0ar. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8. 1 9) prlnot' d69el,ov l.rneiv d1v Xr0pov. (sophocles, Phtloctetes 969) Let's not dispute but converse. Come on, go away (pl.) and-don't (pn66) stay here. If only I were not in Athens! lf only I could go to Cyprus! | advise you to leave the city as quickly as possible' I told my wife not to desire old men.
Because
I Practice sentences
Because
Ttanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 6te toivuv to00'oUtcoq f;1er, npoofrer npo06proq €06l.erv droferv tdrv poul,op6vov ouppoul.eferv. (Demosthenes 1.1) 2 Ertyyavt, ydp 6q'ripti€ng nopeu6pevo6 6r6u dt6tproto. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.74) 3 | admire her because she happens to be so virtuous. 4 The Athenians condemned Socrates to death (see pp. 15-16) on the grounds that he corrupted the young men.
The cause of an action is often expressed in Greek by the participle with ffte, rilq, etc. (see p. 137). The words below, followed by a finite verb, are also used:
6trr
because (i.e. the causal clause explains what
6t6tr 616nep
o0vexo (poetic)
has preceded it, e.g. 'I am looking after you because you are sick')
Enei
since (i.e. the causal clause comes first, e.g. 'Since you are sick, I am looking after you')
6net511
6re 6n6te
as, because, since (i.e. the causal clause
drg
comes first or second)
The verb in the causal clause is regularly in the indicative. However, if the reason is alleged or reported, the optative is used after a verb in a historic tense (see pp. 152-3). This is because indirect statement is clearly implied (see
p. 155). rrl8eto
yd,p Aovo6rv, 6tr po 0vflorovroq 6p0to. (Homer, Ilia.d 1.55) For she pitied the Danaans because she saw them dying.
[oi A0r1vo?or] rdv fleprr],6d ... Brdrt(ov 6tr otpoqydq ov o0r
6ne(riyor. (Thurydides 2.21.3) The Athenians abused Pericles on the grounds that, though he was a genefal, he did not lead them out. Cause can also be expressed by a relative clause:
Ooupootdv rcote?q bq
tpiv
.
.. oi6dv 6i6o4. (Xenophon, Memorqbilio
2.7.r3) You are doing something astonishing in giving us nothing.
I
The'r' of 6rr
| 173 |
does not elide.
*
Purpose clauses
Purpose clauses
| 175 |
V u, can be used in place of ivo pr'1, etc. to mean 'in order that not': pi1 one06e
nl,outsiv
pr1
tcrlirg n6vr1q 16vq. (Menander, Sententiae 358)
Do not hasten to be rich, lest you swiftly become poor.
This use of I went to Athens
to see in order to see the Poet. so as to see
To express purpose, Greek most frequently uses lvo, 6n44, rbgt (in order
that). Negative
pf1.'z
The sequence of tenses (pp. 152-3) means that if the verb in the main clause is in a pdmaq tense, the verb in the purpose clause will be in the subiunctive. If the verb in the main clause is in a historic tense, the verb in the purpose clause malr be in the optative: noporol,eig iotpoUq 6nroq pi1 &no0dvr1; (Xenophon, Memorabilia
2
some people these things and provoke others.
call in doctors so that he may not die?
'l
together with Plato and the poets, prefers the optative. Herodotus and Thucydides prefer the vivid subjunctive: (uvepo6l,eue ... toiq dll.otq 6rnl,e0oot 6nrog dni nl"6ov 6 oitog dvrioyl. (Thucydides 1.65.1) He advised the others to sail out so that the food might last longer.
1 lva is preferred by Aristophanes, Herodotus, Plato and the orators,6noq by Thucydides and Xenophon. rirq is rare in prose, except in Xenophon, but common in tragedy. 2 ivo (etc.) pn6eiq orp{ trq (in order that '.. no one); iva (etc') pflnote (in order that
... never); etc.
with the relatives, especially 6q, ii,6 or (less commonly) 6ottg, iittq, 6tr, with the future indicative (even after historic tenses). Negative pt1. qlpi 6n 6eiv f1p0g ... npeoBeiov ntpnew, fl toUg ptv 6r6d(er to0ttt, toig 6d nopo(uvei. (Demosthenes 2.11) I say that we must send an embassy totell (literally, which will tell) rpbryo t66' 6y1og toip6v ... dv0o
Do you
In this vivid usage, we enter Abrocomas' mind and find him thinking will burn the boats so that Cyrus may not cross'. In fact, Xenophon,
is common in poetry and in Xenophon and Plato.
Note two other ways of expressing purpose: I with the future participle (see p. 136).
2.r0.2)
However, after a historic main verb, the subjunctive is often found in place of the optative: (td tl.oio) Appor6pcrq ... rtrt6rouoev lvo pi1 K0poq 6roBf . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.18) Abrocomas burnt the boats so that Cyrus might (may) not cross.
pf
pf1
trg
dyetor.
(Sophocles' Aia-t
6se) I shall hide this sword of mine where no one will see it.
EI
Wn"n translating English into classical Greek, be very careful to obey the above rules and do NOT use the infinitive, which is probably the most common way of expressing purpose in English. In order to discover in what person to put the verb in a purpose clause introduced by the English infinitive, it can be helpful to change the 'to' of the infinitive to 'in order that' and adjust the English accordingly, e.g.: I went to Athens to see the comedY. I went to Athens in order that I might see the comedy.
N,ll. Purpose clauses are often referred to as final clauses.
I tze 1 errpore
clauses
I Practice sentences Tlanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 d
Result clauses Arachne wove so skilfully that she even challenged Athene. Atalanta ran too fast for anyone to catch her.
In these sentences you can see how the words'so' and'too'signpost the result clause. A result clause in Greek is often signposted by one of the following words: oiircoq (oiitro before consonants) in such a way, so (with adjectives and adverbs)
such toro0tog, torofrl, roto0to tooo0tog, tooo6tq, toooOto(v) so great, so much so far, to such an extent, to dq rooo0co(v) such a pitch (of)
'l'he result is then expressed by diote or sometimes rilq (as, that, so that) (a) followed by the infinitive (negative pf ) when the result arises naturally or as a likelihood from the action of the main verb, i.e. when the action of the main verb is as important to the meaning as the action of the verb in the result clause.
rpoulilv nol.),lv inoiouv rol.oOvteq dl.l,f1l"ouq
The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative if it is different from that of the main verb. If it is the same, it is either omitted or in the nominative. The infinitive will almost always be used in a result clause when the main verb is negative: or)6eig ndlnor' eig tooo0t' dvorSeioq dgtre0'r!5ote toro0t6v tr rol,pfloot noreiv. (Demosthenes 21.62) No one has ever reached such a pitch of shamelessness as to dare to
do anything of that kind.
I tza (b)
Result clauses
I nesutt clauses
followed by the indicative (negative o0) when the actual occurrence of the result is stressed. i.e. when the action of the verb in the subordinate clause is more important than that of the verb in the main clause.
r9.a.tae
| €rp' Q and Cq'
drpiep6v oe, dni ro6tqr pfvtot, dg' Qte pqr6tt ...
8tdrerpar 6
[uvfBqocrv ... Cq',0 d(idorv 6r fle]"onowfloou ir6onov6ot rcri
At times it is difficult to distinguish between these two usages in Greek.
pr166note €trrprloovtcrr o0tr1g. (Thucydides 1. 103) They made an agreement on condition that they should leave the Peloponnese under a truce and never set foot on it again.
Note
The comparative adjective or adverb with i] diore can represent the English word 'too':
roilq ... aoi8oq o0rdv (ql,6l 6tr vedlrepoi eiorv i] riiote ai66vsr oio)v not6prov dor6pqvtot. (Lysias, Epitaphius 72) I envy their children because they are too young to know (literally, more young than so as to know) what sort of father they have been deorived of. When used in this way, riiote must be followed by the infinitive. However, it is not a common usage. The infinitive with riiore can express purpose: ndv noro0orv riiote 6irqv pi1 6r66vor. (Plato, Gorgies 479c) They do everything so as not to be punished. Here they are doing everything to achieve the result of not being punished. can simply introduce a sentence as a connecting word meaning 'the result was that ...', 'so', 'therefore'. Used in this way, it has no effect on the verb that follows. The sentence in (a) on the Drevious page concludes as follows:
... diore roi roilg nol"epiouq drof erv' rilote oi pdv Byytitoto tdrv nol,epicov
roi dgulov.
(Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.17)
... so that even the enemy could hear; as a result, those of the enemy who were nearest actually fled. 4 Result clauses are often called consecutive clauses.
on condition that
6q'Q and €rp'
oUrco
1
alrt
| 179 |
I Practice sentences Tfanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 inmintet (historic present - see p. 218) lrrirv dnletog (immense, t.e., an immense fall of) riiote dn6rpuye roi td 6rl.o roi roUq dvOprirnouq. (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.4.II) 2 roi eig (: on) pivtilv6otepoidvoi1 firev' ri5o0' ot"E),lqveg drpp6vr(ov. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.3.25) 3 o0r dlopev dpyfprov riiore dyopd(erv td 6nrrf16erc. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.3.5) 4 ijoOovro trOrdv 61"&rrco dlovto S6voptv i] riiote tolg rpil"ouq dgel,eiv. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.8.23) 5 oi 6t drpooov &no6cbo'erv [toig verpoirg] C
I
future.
Verbs of fearing and precaution
Verbs of fearing and precaution
r
Fear for the prcsc!! or pa$
-
indicative:
Greek uses pf1 (negative
| 181 |
pi oi) with the
666orro o', 6 npeop0to, pd nl,rlydlv 66et. (Aristophanes, Clouds 493) I fear, old man, that you need blows. (llterally, I fear you, old man, that ...cf. p. 166) 6ei8rrl pr1 6i1 ndwo Oed vrlpept6o einev. (Homer, Odyssey 5.300) I fear that all that the goddess said was true.
I
'l'he commonest verbs of fearing are
Fearing When English uses the infinitive after verbs of fearing, so does Greek: rpoBo0por to0to noretv. I am afraid to do this.
I Precaution
The subject of the two verbs will be the same. Fear for the future
-
Greek uses
p(l
(negative
pi
or)) with the
subjunctive or optative depending on sequence of tenses (see pp. 152-3). As in purpose clauses, the subjunctive can be used in historic sequence for a more vivid effect (see p. 174). 666otro pi1 ... riionep oi l"roto
t Compare English 'lest'. If one fears that something may happen, one hopes that it
will not.
Verbs of precaution (e.g. I take care, I am on my guard, I see to it that) can pf1 (negative pi1 oS) with the same construction as verbs of
lx' followed by ft'aring.
Their commonest construction, however, is 6nrrrq (negative 6noq with the future indicative:
pil ... oiploopot. (Plato, Phaedo 97c) not go away. that I do taking care e$l"oporipevor 6nroq
Vt'rbs used to introduce this construction:
6pd
oron6co,
I
ororc6opor I
doti eil,oB6opor gpovti(ro orent6ov
gul.dtropot
t taa to something
)
l
i
)
I am on my guard
pl)
I tAZ I verOs ot fearing
and precaution
-I l!! For urgent exhortations, Sncoq or Sroq pf1 can stand on their own without the introductory word meaning 'see to it' (e.g. o.r6ner,
Conditional sentences
6p&re): 6no4 6i roOto pi1 6r6d(erg p466vo. (Aristophanes, Clouds 824) But be careful not to teach anvone this. Cf. p. 169.
I Practice sentences Tianslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 d6ote oi co0to 666orro,, pr1 of,r Eylo 6n 6ri (l can giveJ 6rdotco rdtv gil"rov ... dl,l.d pn oSr 61o irovoilq otq 6dr. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1aa\ L.I .l
t
2 €qoBll0nv ... roi dtr rai vOv te0opriBqpor (: 3 4
5 6
7
8
I am agitatedJ pr.1 nveg 6p6v &lvofooroi pe. (Aeschines 2.4) 6nroq toivuv nepi toO nol"6pou pq6iv 6peig. (Demosthenes L9.92) gpovti(co (l am worried) pq rpritrotov fr por oiyd,v. (Xenophon, Memorobilia 4.2.39) | am afraid to die. He was afraid that the doctor might not help him. The girls took care to stay at home. | am afraid that the enemy may defeat us. See that you fight bravelyl
Conditional clauses in English are introduced by'if" 'unless','if ..' not" 'whether ... or'. You must be careful not to confuse them with indirect questions (see p. 164-6). Conditional sentences are made up of a conditional clause and a main clause which gives the consequence or irnplication of the conditional clause. In both English and Greek the conditional clause usually (but by no means always) comes first. Here are some examples to illustrate them.
lf Penelope was ever angry, I was a wretched husband. lf Penelope is unfaithful, I am a wretched husband. lf Penelope proves unfaithful, I shall be a wretched husband' lf Penelope were to be unfaithful, I would be a wretched husband. lf Penelope had been unfaithful, lwould have been a wretched husband.
ln both English and Greek, conditional sentences can simply state facts, lrr the first three above and in the axiomatic:
as
lf a triangle has two equal sides, it is an isosceles triangle. hr this grammar we call conditionals of this type open (any timel. The fourth and fifth sentences above fall into the categories of remote (rt'ferring to the future) and unfulfilled (referring to the present or past)
r('spectively. Comparison between the third and fourth sentences will show Irow the fourth is expressed in a doubtful or remote way in contrast with the third. The words 'were to' and 'would' signal this remoteness. In the fifth sentence, we are in the area of the unreal or the impossible. l't'nelope was not unfaithful and the condition is unfulfilled. Here the words 'would have been' (or 'should have been') are the key. 'Ihus it is natural to call conditionals of these two kinds remote and
unfulfilled. We call the 'if' clause the protasis and the main clause the apodosis. tProtasis is the Greek for 'what is put forward', i.e. a premise; apodosis is the Greek for 'giving back, return', i.e. an answering clause.)
|
184 I Conditional sentences
EI fn" Greek for'if
warnings. In this case the word for
is ei, and for'whether... or'etce... ette.
The negative in the protasis is pf1. The negative in the apodosis is ori unless the clause has its own reasons for using pr1.t
I Open conditionals Past and present In past and present time, the verbs in both the protasis and the apodosis go into the natural tense of the indicative: ei to0to )"tyxq, rol"619 l"6ysrg. lf you are saying these things, you are talking sense. ei
to0to
Conditional sentences
dl"eyeg, rol"6lq dl,eyeq.
lf you were saying these things, you were talking sense. ei to,0tcr eireg, ro1"6lq eTneg. lf you said these things, you talked sense.
'if
| 185 |
is not ri&v but ei:
ei to0to ipei6, dnortevd oe. lf you say these things, I shall kill you. The future indicative is used in the apodosis whether the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive or the indicative. N.B. In the last two examples above, what looks like a present tense in English ('you say'J in fact refers to the future. We call this a concealed future, and if you are translating from English into Greek, it is vital that you spot it.
EI
tt ttt" conditional clause begins with Bdv and the verb in the main clause is in the preseuL indicative, it is likely that dilv is introducing an indefinite conditional clause, where the rules relating to indefinite clauses affect those for conditional clauses. See pp. 195-6. 6dv roOco norfig, od 6notvdr.
lf (-
whenever) you do this, | (always) praise you.
If the conditional clause had not been indefinite, the sentence would have read: ei ro0to noreig, od dnotv6r. lf you are doing this, I praise you.
Future An open conditional referring to the future can have its verb in the future indicative. However, Greek tends to take into account the fact that the future is uncertain and to use the indefinite construction (see pp. 195-6) in the protasis, i.e. ddv + the subjunctive (i6v is made up of ei and dv):2 6dv toOro 1"6yr1q, ral,6rq €peiq. lf you say these things, you will be talking sense.
If the future indicative is used, it insists on the inevitability of the consequence. It is thus appropriate to emotional appeals, threats and
I Unfulfilled and remote conditionals Present 'lir convey present time in unfulfilled conditionals, Greek uses the imperfect irrclicative in the protasis and the imperfect indicative with dv' in the .rpodosis.
t In addition to being a statement, an apodosis may be a command, a wish or a question. pn may stand in these constructions. 2
In Ionic, in Thucydides and in tragedy, iiv appears in place of idv. dv is also found in Attic Greek: Plato uses it more commonly than d&v.
I iiv is often placed before or after the verb but it can be attached to negatives, to hrterrogatives or to any emphatic word. It never comes first word in a sentence or a clause.
|
186 | Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences
ei rq,0to E)"eyec", rul"6g dv dl"eyeg. lf you were saying these things, you would be talking sense.
| 187 |
Future
It is an interesting - and helpful - coincidence that 'you were saying', which is in fact an English subjunctive, is identical to the imperfect tense.
Past
Remote conditionals referring to the future use ei protasis and the optative with dv in the apodosis.
+ the ootative in the
ei toOto 1"6yorg, rol.6rg dv l"6yorg. lf you were to say these things, you would talk sense.
Note that in English 'you said' could be substituted for 'you were to say'.
To convey pagl time in unfulfilled conditionals, Greek uses the aorist indicative in the protasis and the aorist indicative with dv in the apodosis.
EI rit"
el ro0ro eirceg, rol,69 dv elneq.
times at which the protasis and apodosis are set may be different. This is especially common with:
lf you had said these things, you would have talked sense.
g
el + aorist indicative, imperfect indicative + lf I had done X, I would (now) be doing Y. fl or frv is usually considered to be the imperfect of eipi (l am). In this construction it may also convey the meaning of the aorist: nol"r) dv 0oupoot6tepov
flv (imperfect meaning), ei dtipdlvto.
(Plato,
Republic 489b)
It would be far more wonderful if they were being honoured.
c[v.
Greek uses the construction appropriate to each clause. So:
ct pq Speig fll"0ete, inopeu6pe0o dv dni Boorl"6o. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.4) lf you had not come, we would now be marching against the king.
Contrast: ri5ot', ei nopfloOo (aorist meaning), rdv 0edv rdv vOv y61erg ei26oiorv dv petfll.Oeq eior8rbv r66e. (Euripides, Bacchae 712-13) And so, if you had been there, you would have sought with prayers the god whom now you criticize, after seeing these things.
lix.rnrine the following sentences. To which of the categories described
llxrvt' does each belong?
oir flv ... oiolporep8tlq' ei 6' ololporep6rlq, o0r flv 0eo0. {Plato, Republic 408c)
ct piv (Aorl"qnrdg) 0eo0 flv,
lf Asclepius was the son of a god, he was not greedy for profit; if
he
was greedy for profit, he was not the son of a god.
The imperfect indicative is used to refer to an act as continuing or being repeated in the past. So ei toOro E),.eyec,, rol,6lq ffv dl"eyeq
could mean 'if you had been saying these things, you would have been talking sense' as well as 'if you were saying these things (now), you would be talking sense' (see the last example but one). The context should make the meaning clear.
oOv iqq v0v, n6te doer oirot; (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus s.3.27) So if you go now, when will you be at home?
ldv
ut
ro0ro 1"6lerq, i1Oopfi pdv 6( ipo0. (Sophocles, Antigone 93)
lf you say these things, you will be hated by me.
I 188 | Conditional
Conditional sentences
sentences
ei piv nepi dl.l"ou trvdg ii toO orirpotog ... Kol,l,idq flyrovi(eto, 6(flprer dv por roi td nopd t6rv d,l"l"rov eipqp6vo. (Lysias 5.1) lf Callias were fighting for anything apart from his life, even the things said by everybody else would be enough for me.
roi iooq dv ... dn60ovov ei pi1 i dpfrl 6rd rol6rov rorel.601. (Plato, Apology 32d) And perhaps I would have been killed, had not the government speedily been put down.
goBoiro rdv 0dvotov 6 roroOtog; (Plato, Phaedo 68b) Would it not be a great absurdity if such a man were to fear death? or) nol"l"rl dv dl"oyicr eir1, ei
ei floov dv8peg d1o0ol, rbg oi gng, orir dv note ro0ro datrolov. (Plato, Gorgias 516e) lf they had been good men, as you say, they would never have suffered these things (repeatedly).
| 189
participle standing in for the imperfect. If dv would have been used in the direct statement, it must remain. 6dv toOto rotflte, ndvto rol"6rq €let. lf you do this, all will be well. (direct speech) f11o0pot, 6dv toOto notflte, ndvto rol"6rq 6(erv. I consider that, if you do this, all will be well. (primary sequence)
flyoripqv, ei toOto notoite, ndvto rol'dlq 6[etv. I considered that, if you did this, all would be well. (historic sequence) lrt the last example ddv to0to notflte could have been kept from the direct specch.
ei ro0co notoirlg, ndvto roldrg dv d1ot. lf you were to do this, all would be well. (direct speechl f1yo0por, ei to0to notoiqq, ndvto rcol.dlq dv d1erv. I think that, if you were to do this, all would be well. (primary sequenceJ
I Practice sentences
I Gonditional sentences in indirect statement lsaid that if I made a mistake lwould take responsibilityfor it. Protasis
If the main verb (the verb of saying, etc.) is in a primary tense (see pp. 152-3), the verb in the protasis of the indirect statement is unchanged. If the main verb is in a historic tense, the verb in the protasis can be put into the optative, but only if it is in a primary tense. (lt may, of course, be in the optative already.J If the original subjunctive of the protasis is changed to the optative, ci must replace €dv. Apodosis
If the construction with 6tr or rilq is used, the rules on pp. 159-60 are followed. If the infinitive or participle is used, this will be in the same tense as the indicative or optative of the direct speech, with the present infinitive and
'll.rnslate into English or Greek as appropriate: I ddv 6' dyrlpev Xpflpoe', 6[opev
pe(o, f.).
|
lmpersonal verbs | 191 |
lmpersonal verbs
d(eoti por...
]
n&peo'ti por...
r
,,
with the dative of the agent and the genitive of the thing
ptreod por robtou tofrou
have a share in this care for this am sorry about this
p6l"er por
petop6),er por
It's raining. It's pouring.
It's annoying.
It's snowing. It's thundering.
It's a bore.
toftou
Note the following expressions:
It hurts.
6yd flv rcl,6rq d2ger
It upsets me that ...
61l,oi
In English, impersonal verbs (i.e. verbs used with 'it' as a sort of empty or dummy subject) are frequently used of the weather, and in other contexts
ouppoiver
too.
rqp6tter,
6r1l"6v 6ort
it's raining
dotpdnter
it's thundering
happens
(the herald) proclaims, the proclamation was made
the lightning flashes
V
Impersonal verbs use the accusative absolute rather than the genitive absolute (see p. 141-2).
doeroe
1etp6(er it's stormy
there was an earthquake
The most common impersonal verbs are the following:
with the accusative and the infinitive
npdtterv) it is necessary for
me (to do this),
I must do this
it is necessary for me ... xpn p€ ... The imperfect of 1pf is 1pfiv or 61pr1v. English cannot say 'l oughted to do this', but Greek can: d1p4v pe ro0ro npdrrerv. I ought to have done this.
r
shows)
ve
ppovtg
6ei pe (toOto
it is evident (i.e., the situation
itper it's snowing
D61
r
it was late it's fine
it Brr'1puNe
Greek has the following impersonal usages to describe the weather: g
possible/permitted for me, I can
',
with dative and the infinitive 6orei por (to0to noreiv) it seems (a good idea) to me, I have decided (to do this) np6ner por ... I it is fitting for me ... npooflrer por... l oupg6per por... it is of use to me ...,
it is advantageous for me ... )"[orte].e? por ...
it ls orofitable for me ...
Note the following accusative neuter participles: 66ov, d(6v, per6v, nop6v, npooflrov, p6l.ov, petop6l"ov, nupbyov (: it being possible),
6oro0v. 66(cv. Some examples:
d6ekpeort6voq te, or)6iv 66ov, y6yovo. (Herodotus 3.65) And I have become the killer of my brother when there was no need.
ti 6f1, 6p&q d[dv dnol6oor, o0r dni to0to fl].0opev; (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.22) But why then, when it was possible for us to destroy you, did we not proceed to do it?
&l"l"d
I Practice sentences 'l}.rnslate into English or Greek as appropriate: I flp6poq ... Eyeipa(e tpeiq. (Herodotus 7.191) 2 6fll,ov ydp 6t,r oio0o, p6l.ov y6 oor. (Plato, Apology 24d) 3 ol 6'o0 Boq0rloovteq,66ov,0yreig dnfi),Oov; (Plato, Alcibiodes 11sb)
1
I roz ; trp.rronal
verbs
4
dl,l,d
5
nop6lov ... tflq Aoirlg
ti f1piv, dl pord,pte Kpitcov, oiitro tflg t6rv nol,l,6v 66(r'19 p6),er; (Plato, Crito 44c) n&or1g
The gerundive
dplerv einet6coq, dl,l,o tr oipf oeoOe;
(Herodotus 5.49)
6 Since it is necessary to go away, let us go willing(ly). 7 lt is of no advantage for us to kill the queen. 8 Though the men act bravely, Artemis decided (use d6o€e) to show
9 l0
herself better than them. | am sorry about my bad deeds. lt was late; nevertheless it was possible for me to reach Athens.
This young man is by no means to be despised. One word remains to be said. As well as using 1pf1 and 6ei (see p. 190), Greek has another way of saying 'ought', 'must' or 'should'. This is the gerundive, a passive verbal adiective (the equivalent of 'to be despised' and 'to be said' in the above sentences). It expresses the necessity for the action of the verb to be performed, and ends in -r6oq, -tr6d, -t6ov, declining like rpil,rog (see p. 32). It usually adds the ending to the verb stem which has the same form as lhat of the aorist passive (e.9. (6)na6o(0qv)) with g changing to n and
ItoK:
nouor6oq to be stoPPed rorqt6oq to be done
no6co -> nor6co -+
l"qnt6oq to be taken (aor. 6l,r1q0r1v) npdrt6og to be done (aor. dtp610r1v)
l"cpprivol -+ npo.rr,a --> nei0
-+
neror6og
to be persuaded or to be obeyedl
Note the following less easily identifiable gerundives:
q6po -+ oiot6og eipn -+ it6oq
to be carried, endured (cf. fut. oioo) to be travelled (cI. 2 pl. ice)
Cerundives are used in two ways:
o
as straightforward adjectives. The agent is in the dative:
{ ri6}"tg 6otiv. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 3.6.3) The city must be helped (literally, is to be helped) by you. rb
r
in the impersonal form -t6ov (n. sg.) or -t6o (n. pl.), as the equivalent of 1pr1 or 6ei with the infinitive (this usage is essential for intransitive verbs), e.g.
norqr6ov (or rorqt6o) (6oti) It is necessary to do ...
:
noreiv 1pr1 or 6ei
I Note that verbs with different meaning in the active and middle have both available in the gerundive.
I roa I rn.
gerundive
oneuor6ov (6ori) : oneri8erv 1pr1 or6ei It is necessary to hurry.
Indefinite clauses
The agent can be in the dative (as in the last quotation) or in the accusative (as if it were accompanying 1pr1 or 6ei).
itriv y' 0ndp rrlq 6leu0epidg d,yorvrot6ov. (Demosthenes 9.70) We at any rate must struggle for freedom.
I like the books you write.
In this example, flpiv could equally well have been f1pdg. Since the sense of the gerundive tends to be active,
accusative object:
rov Boul,6pevov ... e06oipovo etvor oorrppoorivqv 6r
dorqt6ov. (Plato, Gorgi,as 507c) It is necessary that the man who wishes to be happy should pursue and practise moderation.
oiotfov tri6e. (Euripides, Orestes 769) These things must be endured. As can be seen from the above examples, dod (the word for 'it is', or the equivalent) is frequently omitted.
I Practice sentences Tianslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 €ryqqioovto 6i oi Aare8orp6vror tiiq onov6dq l"sL6o0ar roi rcol,epqt6o eivot. (Thurydides 1.88.1) qnpi 6n 611rl poq0nt6ov eivor roig npdypoorv 6piv. (Demosthenes
r.r7) o06i ydp co0ro
dlovtt.
dlld
ndvtcov ptil"roro Etorrt6ov r(r voOv
(Plato, Theaetetus 767d)
4 You must say one thing and do another. (Use gerundives.) 5 We must send the girls to a safe place. (Use the gerundive.) 6 The boys must go to the city and the girls to the fields. (Use the gerundive.)
I welcomed her when she
it can take an
arrived.
I like whatever books you write. I welcomed her whenever she arrived.
'l'he word 'ever' added to 'what' and 'when' in the sentences in the second column above makes the clause in which it appears indefinite. In Greek, verbs in primary (i.e. present or future) time in an indefinite clause are in the subjunctive with dv.r Verbs in historic (i.e. past) time are in the ()ptative without dv. Negative pr1.
EI
Sirr." in most other constructions involving the subjunctive and optative, the subjunctive is not used with dv while the optative will have dv somewhere nearby, the indefinite construction is generally easy to recognize.
Some examples:
ri dv potl,orvror 6(ouotv. They will have whatever they want.
&e po6l,otto, to0to dnpdttev. Whenever he wanted to, he used to do this. Note these indefinite conditional clauses: yel,Q 6' 6 prilpog rdv (: rai 36v) tt pr1 lel"oiov fr. (Menander, Sententiae 108) The fool laughs (every time) even if something is not funny. ddv is made up of ei and dv. (cf. p. 184.) I div never comes first word in a clause [or a sentence.). In this construction it is likely to be closely attached to the word ('if', 'which', etc.) which begins the indefinite clause, often coalescing with it (e.9. 6tov for 6te (when) dv, dner8dv for dlter6i (when) dv, 6&v for ei (if) dv).
I roo ; tno.tinite
clauses
Time clauses
dttpo 6' ei tt rtrl.dv npiittotev, nopiototo 6' ei ttg oup
I Practice sentences Tlanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 ouppoleiv rcoi npoorllerv tdv vo0v to6totq 6061,ouorv dntrvteg' oUg dv 6pdlot nopeoKsuoop6vouq roi npdtttw d06lowoq & 1pf1. (Demosthenes 4.6) 2 roi oDq piv i6or e0tdrtroq roi otronf i6vtog (here : marching), npooe)"cr6vrov o0toiq tiveg te eiev f1prfto, rcoi dnei l60orto €nfvet' (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 5.3.55) 3 el tiq y6 tr oitQ npoottilovtr rol.dlg 0qpetrloetev, o06evi nrbaote dltiptotov eidoe tilv npo0Dpitrv. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.9'18) 4 He praised whatever PeneloPe did. 5 Whenever I find out that she is in Athens, I leave the city as quickly as possible. lf ever I see my students struggling, I try to help them. lf ever I saw my students struggling, I tried to help them.
6 7
Time clauses referring to the present or the past have their verb in the appropriate tense of the indicative unless they are indefinite,l in which case they follow the indefinite construction (pp. 195-6). 6o9 doti rorp6g, dvtrl,6peo0e tdlv npoypdtolv. (Demosthenes 1.20) While there is an opportunity, take matters in hand' flviro 6d 6eil.r1 dflpeto, €9dv1 rovropt6g. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.8)
When it was getting to be afternoon, a cloud of dust appeared. 6ttrv one66q trq ofu6q, 1
nenofoopor. (Sophocles, Antigone9T)
When my strength fails, I shall stop. 6p0g d8rrfr, flpeig 6nlp Spdrv poloripe0o. Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 4.4.11) But whenever anyone wrongs you, we shall fight for you.
flviro 6' dv ttq
I A time clause is indefinite (a) when it refers to the future {b) when it happens an indefinite number of times
(c) when it continues for an indefinite period.
I tos
1
tir. ctauses
lime clauses | 199 |
Some temporal conjunctions
:
I rcpiv
dte, 6tov 6n6re,6n6r,av
{virc
]*n"'
usually referring to the
Srog
ptxp1 6oov
rons
u,
]..
same time as that of the main verb
If npiv is followed by the infinitive, it will mean 'before'. Otherwise translate it as 'until'. For speakers of English, helpful rules for the use of npiv are:
1 If rpiv can be translated
either by 'before' or 'until' and the main verb is negative, its clause follows the rule of other temporal clauses (given
€
6vO
aboveJ:
)wrrire
I
o0 Xpt pe dv06v6s &ne}"Oeiv zpiv dv 66t 6irr1v. (Xenophon, Anabasis
Enei
s.7.s)
6ret6f1, dnerSdv )after dnei npdlrov rirq (or inei) rayroru u, ,oon u, dner8il r,&ytora I
6( oE 6( 6cou
&rp'oO rbg
6roq
pexpr p61pr o0
npiv
(see below)
np6tepov ii
r,".", I
I r
ever since
I must not go from here before (until) | pay the penalty. o0 np6o0ev dno6oovto npiv 6(enol,t6prrloov tdv "Ol.oupov. usually referring to a time before that of the main verb
when, as soon as, since
unilr
referring to a time after that of the main
before, until before, sooner than
verb
)
2
(Xenophon, H ellenica 7 .4.1 B) They did not stop before (until) they had taken Olourus by siege. lf. npiv can be translated only by 'before', it is followed by the infinitive unless the main verb is negatived or contains a negative idea (e.g. &nolope6or (l forbid)). (In that case its clause follows the rule of other temporal clauses.) oi roi npiv dp' eiteiv 6tro0v ei66teg (Demosthenes 18.50) those who know even before I say anything
?'tyetar ydp Al.rtprtl6qv, npiv e1rootv 6tdlv e?vot, fleprrl,ei ... torti8e 6tcrl.e10fl vcrt nepi v6pcov. (Xenophon, Commentaries 1.2.40) For it is said that Alcibiades, before he was twenty years old, discussed such things about laws with Pericles.
np6repov
ii
(sooner than, before) follows the same construction.
np6repov (before) can be used as an adverb looking forward to a temporal clause beginning with 5
rai oit ttpdrcpoy 6no6oovro ria4 d1v . .. n6l"tv elq otdoerg roc6ocloov. (Lysias 25.26)
.
..
They did not stop (before) until they divided the city into factions.
EI fn" subject of the infinitive is regularly
in the accusative unless it is the same as that of the main verb, in which case it is in the nominative.
i
I zoo
I
rir.
ctauses
Verbs of prgv.enting, hindering and denying
I Practice sentences
i
Tianslate into English or Greek as appropriate: 1 fiv ydp note 1p6vog 6re 0eoi pdv froov, 0vqtd 6i y6vq o0r fiv. (Plalo, Protogoras 3 2Oc) 2 €ner6i1 5d 6),ryop1id dy6veto, oi rprdrowo (: the Thirty (oligarchs)) o0 petoneprydpevoi pe n6pntov oritov (see p. 1a6) ... npoo6ro(ov dyoyeiv ir Xol.apivoq A6ovto rdv Xtrl.opivtov ivo dnoOdvor. (PlaIo, Apolagy 32c) 3 B1pflv ... pi1 np6repov nepi t6rv 6pol"oyoup6vrrrv ouppoul,efetv npiv nepi tdv dpqtopqtoup6vrov flp0g i6i6o(av. (Isocrates 4.19) 4 iner6dv d,no,vt' d,rorlolre, rpivate. (Demosthenes 4.14) 5 dri ... td drpov &voBoiver Xerpioo
Minos tried to prevent Daedalus and lcarus from leaving Crete. The mob in the street hindered his journey to the Pnyx.
ln Greek, verbs
of.
preventing, hindering and denying (all of which contain
some sort of negative sense) are followed by the infinitive, which can often be preceded by pn.t When the verb of preventing is negatived itself, or is part of a question expecting the answer no, Greek usually follows it with pr1 o0 with the infinitive:
ratopvfr
pi1 6e6por6vor
t66e; (sophocles, Anttgone 442)
Do you deny that you did this?
rivo oiet &nopvqoeo0ar pl o01i
(see p. 204) roi oitdv dniotooOor Dircara; (Plato, Gorgias 461c) Who do you think will deny that he too understands what is just? (The answer 'nobody' is implied.)
td
However, r
s.2o) They could not prevent Philip from passing through. Other usages after these verbs:
.
rd pr] or td pi1 o0 with the infinitive: tdv nl"eiorov 6pil"ov tdlv ryil.6rv etplov rd pn ... td
rcxoupyeiv. (Thurydides
€yyirq
tffq n6l"eroq
3.1.2)
They prevented the biggest company of the light-armed troops from ravaging the parts near the city.
t
the p{ is redundant, but strengthens the negative idea of the verb. Compare
Shakespeare, Comedy of Errors 4.2.7: 'First he denied you had in him no right.'
I
Verbs of preventing, hindering and denying | 203
ZOZ ; VerOs of preventing, hindering and denying
p{ oir neoeiv. (Aeschylus, Prometheus BoundglS) For in his case, these things will not be enoggh (to prevent him) from
ori8dv 1dp o0r(r ro0r' 6nopr6oer td
falling. Contrast: 6n6o26ov rd ei06o4 toig A0rlvoior6 drr26erpeiv. (Thucydides 7.33.3) They refrained from immediately attacking the Athenians.
o
toO pf1 or toO pi1 oir (or simply toO) with the infinitive. This is the
genitive of separation. n0g ydp dordq 66'dv8pog E(er toO pi1 roro60vor. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.5.11) For each wine-skin will prevent two men from sinking. Verbs and expressions of preventing, etc.: eipyro 6pno6rirv elpr (+ fl41.)t
rorl.6o &noyopeio
(+
dne?nov
dat.l
o0r
(+
)
t nr"u"nt
.,, I hinder, prevent dat.)
d6
(dn)&pv6opor (and other compounds)
dn6lopor gul,6rtopor
I forbid
J I deny
I refrain I guard against
I Practice sentences Ttanslate into English or Greek as appropriate: I 6'Innid, 67rb ror o$r &pqtoBqcdr pq o01i oi elvor ooqdrepov fl ip6. (Plato, Hippias Min4r 359d) 2 ol 0edlv f1p0g 6pror rco?"6ouor nol,epioug etvot dl,l,r1),org. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.7) 3 roi 9r1pi 6p0oor ro0r dnapvo0por td pl (6p0oor). (Sophocles, Antigone 443) 4 roi 6ni E( drrl ... roi 66ro pflvag dr6olovro pi1 dni cilv Eradprov
yflv orpote0oor. (Thurydides 5.25.3)
I dpnobrirv is an adverb meaning 'in the way'. It does not change its form.
5 Minos tried to prevent Daedalus from flying from Crete. 6 I refrained from saying the terrible words which I had in mind, 7 Arachne could not stop herself from challenging Athene. 8 My mother forbade me to come to the theatre.
|
The negatives | 205
I The uses of
The negatives
or) is
oil and
the negative
of.
pr1
facts arLd stetements. pfl is the negative of wtll and,
tltought. otr is used
Note the following commonly used compound negatives:
oir
or)6eig, o06epia,
V
pr{
or)66v pq6eig,
o0 ... norr6 o066nore
prl ...
oiinote ODK€T1
prlnore pr1r6n
oiinro
pflno
pr16epio,
pq66v
no one
rroT€
n"""
pq66nore
oD66
ptt66
oiire ... o0te ...
pflte ... pflte ...
oiSopdrq
pqDopdrq
]
in:
statements, direct and indirect whether in the indicative,
no longer not yet
and not, not evenl neither ... nor In no way
optative or infinitive direct questions that expect the answer'yes', and in normal indirect questions relative and temporal clauses unless indefinite result clauses with the indicative
sentences
the participle when it communicates a statement
the infinitive in indirect statement (but see p. 156 for pf1 after verbs such as 'hope', 'promise', 'swear')
toOto l"6ye pq66rote. Never say these things.
pr1
if
o06i rdv Ooppirov' ireivog o01 6pQ. (Demosthenes 36.46) literally, nor does he not see Phormio, l.e. he sees Phormio plainly enough.
I When translating o066 and pr166, note that these have both the weak meaning 'and
not' and the strong meaning'not even'. 2
But compare colloquial
'l can't get no satisfaction'.
wishes
direct questions that expect the answer'no', and in all deliberative questions
all indefinite clauses including temporal clauses result clauses with the infinitive
indicative or future participle; also relative purpose clauses the protasis ('if...' clause) of conditional or concessive sentences
the participle with conditional or generic force (see below) generic relative clauses (see
As a rule, compound negatives which follow another negative (simple or compound) confirm it rather than cancel it as in English:,
Two negatives cancel each other out - making a strong affirmative * only a simple negative follows another negative:
all commands. exhortations and
purpose clauses with the subjunctive, optative, future
the normal apodosis (main clause) of conditional
o0 becomes oOrc when the next word begins with a vowel with a smooth breathing, and o01 when the next word begins with a vowel with a rough breathing. oili is a more emphatic denial than o0.
pri is used in:
below)
the infinitive except in indirect statement
Generic pf1 (indicating a class or group):
toOto
&
o0 Bofl.etor np&ttetv dno
He runs away from the (particular) things he doesn't want to do.
roOto & pr1 Bofl,eror np6.rrxl dno
|
I zoo 1 ft'.
negatives
d9'otg Tdp prl gpovdr oiy&v 9rl.6r. (Sophocles, Oedipus TJtronnus 569)
Pafticles
For I am accustomed to be silent over (the kind ofl matters I do not understand. Also contrast:
€reivor oi oi6iv ei66reg those men who know nothing
oi pq6iv ei66teq men who know nothing, the ignorant tdrv
oir dvtrov
(Thucydides 2.44.3)
of the dead (literally, of those who do not exist) 6 pq6iv d8trdlv oir8evdg 6eiror v6pou. (Menander, fragment 845) The (sort of) man who does no wrong needs no law.
I Double negatives
1
2
The uses of the double negative pi1 o0 after verbs of fearing and precaution ar'd of. preventing, hindering arrd, denying are explained on pp. 180-1 and pp. 201-2. oi pf1 with the aorist subjunctive (less commonly the present subjunctive) or the future indicative expresses a strong negative statement: o0 pf noforopor grl.ooog6v. (Plato, Apology 29d) I will not cease from searching for wisdom. oU
ror prlnor6 o' ... drovtd trg d(er. (Sophocles, Oedtpus at Colonus 176)
3
Greek particles are short words which never change and serve one or more
of the following functions: I They can connect one utterance to a preceding one. 2 They can qualify a word, phrase or clause ('even', 'also', 'anyway', etc.). 3 They can 'colour' a word, phrase or clause, conveying what is often expressed in spoken English by volume and tone of voice ('he said that', 'he said that!') and in written English by italics, exclamation marks, inverted commas, etc. For reasons of convenience, a number of adverbs and conjunctions are included under this heading. Those words marked * cannot stand first in a sentence.
but; oh well
dl.l,6
dl.l"' lorpev (Plato, Protagoras 0h well, let's go!
yrip d)Ad ob pdvov ...
dl"l"d
but in fact
oi piv
nevertheless, notwithstanding
311a)
not only ... but also ...
dil"d. rcai ...
roi
No one shall ever take you against your will.
dil,l,roq
In Greek drama, oi pr'1 may be used with the second person singular of the future indicative to express a strong prohibition: o0 pr1 rcpoooioerg leipo pn6' dvn n6n1,cov. (Euripides, Hippolyttu
dpa
then (logical), so then, after all (of realization) pdtqv dp',
dp*
introduces a question (see pp. 162-3) &p'o0; introducing a question expecting the answer 'yes' &po pft; introducing a question expecting the answer 'no'
606)
Don't lay your hand (on me) or touch my garment!
te
oi
pi1 )"qpnoer6. (Aristophanes, Clauds 367) Don't talk rubbish!
dltop
especially
but , however (usually poetic, but found in Xenophon and Plato)
I zoa ; eurti.t..
Particles | 209
sustain or revive the hearer's attention. It can convev scepticism or sarcasm:
on the other hand, on the contrary, then again oi "E}"l"r1veq ... €nfroov ... oi 6' crO prippopot oir €661ovro. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.10.11) The Greeks came against them, but the barbarians for their part did not wait to take them on.
o0*
y(tp*
for; in fact, indeed; yes, for...; no, for... 6pol"oye?6 oOv nepi dpi d6rrog yeyevfloOor; fl ydp
drovreg
611nou*
6flto
y&p simply meaning 'for' is used very frequently in Greek. There is often no need to translate it into English. 1r@E
yap oD;
ye* (enclitic)
doubtless, you will admit, I presume
6peig ... iore 6r'1nou 50ev fll,toq dvtolet. (Xenophon, Anabosis 5.7.6) You know, I presume, where the sun rises.
oOv; & pi1 rppovdr ydp or) qtl"6r l"6yerv pd,tqv.
(Sophocles, Oedipus'Ijtrannus 1520) Do you agree to this? No, for I am not accustomed to say pointlessly what I do not mean.
6q
you know, of course
6fnou often has a touch of irony or doubt in contexts where certainty would be expected:
Indeed I have to.
td6'
iote
Xrorpdtqg 6 oo
&vriyrr1. (Xenophon, Anabasis I.6.8) So do you agree that you have been unjust towards me?
611 all
absolutely
really, in truth In answers, expressing agreement: yryv<6ore0' 6peig ijoq do0'f16i i yuv{; ytyvriroropev 6nt [o] . (Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazousae 606) Do you know who this woman is? Yes, indeed we do.
for how could it not be? i.e., how could it be otherwise? thu& of course
oi 6fim
certainly not (strong or indignant denial)
at least, anyway, at any rate, indeed
eire ...
whether ... or
oir 5' o0 )"tyetc"ye [oioXpd], 6pqq 66 p' eiq 6oov 66vor. (Euripides, Andromaclrc 239) You're not (indeed) saying these disgraceful things about me, but you're doing them as forcefully as you
ii .ii.
either ... or ...
i
in truth
p. 165 and p. 184)
In truth you speak well, l.e. what you say is truly splendid.
T6 can correspond to an exclamation mark:
ye.
(see
fr rol"rirg l"6yerg. {Plato, Gorgias 447c)
can.
e0
...
elte...
dpoOflq
y'ei.
For fl introducing a question, see p. 162.
Well done! Why, you are stupid! yo0v*
at any rate, at all events (from ye o0v)
66*
but, and
6' o0v*
but in fact; however that may be
En*
this word puts an increased volume of voice on the preceding word, or serves as an emphatic gesture to
i
ptu
leads into strong assertions, threats and oaths:
fl pilv p{te pe Eevog6rvto re}.e0oot dtpcl,6o0cr rdv dvbpo pr1te dl"l"ov iptirv pq66vo. (Xenophon, Anabasis 6.6.17) I swear by the gods that neither Xenophon nor anyone else among you told me to rescue the man.
dpvDpr Oeoig ...
and, actually, also, even
both ... and ...
|
I zro
1
e.rt.t.t both... and...
... te* ( ...
)
Particles 12111
rcai ...
X
roi ytip roi 611 roi 611 roi roirot p6v*... 66* ...
p6vror*
Note that as an enclitic re must be translated into English in front of the word which it comes after in Greek:
re roi Y
:
both X and
piv dorroq ... ioOr p6vtor dv6qtoq rilv. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.13) You are like a philosopher ... know however that you are 9r1"oo6
Y.
stupid.
and in fact
dl"qO6ororo p6vtot l"6yetq. (Plato, Sophist 245b) Certainly, what you say is very true.
and above all (introducing a climax) and especially, and in particular, and what is more and yet on the one hand ... but on the other hand ... Sometimes the 66 clause is missing and must be supplied in thought. To put the English word 'while' (expressing not time but contrast) between the p6v and 66 clauses may be a good way of translating these words, but should not be overused.
fl ptv doO
rol.u1p6vr6v doo, rd 6d odlpo ev 6or e pov roi 6ltyolpovrcirt e pov. (plato, phoedo yD26i1
Frlv*
indeed, however (especially after a negative)
xci p1v
and indeed, and yet but here comes ... i.e. signalling the entry of a new character in tragedy:
roi pilv dvo( 65[e] ... n6pa.
Remember that 66 means 'but on the other hand', not simply 'on the other hand'. Thus the following sentence does not work:
tdlv piv Aore8otpoviolv Cv rf Artrrfl dvt
certainly, in fact; no, on the contrary Crito: dtorov rd dv6nvrov, 6 Xrbrcpoteg. Socrates: Cvopliq piv oOv. (Plaro, Crito 44b) The dream was strange, Socrates. No, on the contrary, it was clear. The speaker corrects his own words or those of another speaker. plv oOv can also signal transition to a new subject. In addition, it can also simply combine the usual sense of p6v and oOv.
(Sophocles, Oedipus at
Cobnus 549-50) But look, here is the king rt plv;
(on its own) but of course (introducing a question) what indeed? but what? dl,l"d d pilv 6oreiq; (Plato, Theaetetus I62b) But what is your opinion?
87d)
The soul lasts for a long time, while the body is weaker and lasts for a shorter time.
plv
however, certainly
pTlrt ...
neither ... nor ...
pnre... 6prrlq
nevertheless
oi66
and not, not even (also pn66 - see pp. 204-6)) 204-6)
oiite ... oiire ... oi5rouv,
oiro0v
Give priority to the part of the word with the accent: oUrouv means 'certainly not' o0roOv means simply 'therefore', or alternatively 'not ... therefore?' (introducing a question expecting the answer 'yes', like dp'o0 (see above, p. 207)).
o$v*
therefore, and so
6'o6v*
see
under 66
I zrz ; errti.t"t
Particles | 213
'l
nou* (enclitic)
TroD
te* (enclitic)
and (te is translated into English in front of the word which it comes after.)
as an enclitic means
suppose' or 'somewhere'.
Zei
dL)"ot re Oeoi (Homer, Iliod" 6.476) O Zeus and the other gods ... +o* !o
...
.,, -^* Lc
roi
... both ... and ... and ... (see under roi) tor* (enclitic) you do realize (The speaker feels that the hearer's attitude
or behaviour should be affected by what is said.) rdrv ror pccoicov dv6pdorv
{ y},6oo' d},qOnq yiyv etat roclyopog.
(Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes 438-9) So it is true that their tongue is the true accuser of men's vain conceits.
toivuv*
further, therefore
rilq
as, when, since, because how!
that ...,
e.g.
dl,eyov rbq ... they said that ... rbq
with the future participle is used to express purpose p. 136).
(see
Note that accented
V
ri5q
means 'thus, in this way'.
Greek likes to have a connecting word at the beginning (usually first or second word) of each sentence. 66 (and, but) will often be found at the outset of a passage and throughout it (as second word). Often there is no need to translate it into English.
|
I Practice exercise What are the Greek connecting words you would use if you were translating this paragraph ol Monsfteld Parkby Jane Austen? Fill in the gaps and give Greek equivalents for the words underlined. I have generally put the dots after the first word of their clause but you are welcome to use a connecting word that would in fact begin the clause. She ... was then taken into a parlour, so small that her first conviction was of its being only a passage-room to something better, and she stood for a moment expecting to be invited on; but when she saw there was no other door, and that there were signs of habitation before her, she... called back herthoughts, reproved... herself, and grieved lest they should have been suspected. Her mother, however, could not stay long enough to suspect anything. She ... was gone again to the street-door to welcome William. ... 'Ohl my dear William,' she said, 'how glad I am to see you. But have you heard about the "Thrush"? She ... is gone out of the harbour already; three days before we had any thought of it; and I do not know what I am to do about Sam's things, they ... will never be ready in time; for she may have her orders tomorrow, perhaps. lt ... takes me quite unawares. And now you must be off for Spithead too. Campbell ... has been here, quite in a worry about you; and now what shall we do? | ... thought to have had such a comfortable evening with you, and here everything comes upon me at once.'
I zr+ ; veu8eis 90,or
Yeu8eiq rgil,or |
Yeu6etg qiluol
66o9,66oug n.
it being necessary fear
efpi
lam
etpr
I shall go
66ov
(Words easily confused)
Cprq, -16o9 f.
dyeipo
I gather together I wake (somebody) up, arouse
dptir (&ro) dpdt (6co) dpcordro
I praise, commend I advise
060 f.
spectacle
0e& f. (poetic) 0e6v 06rov (participle)
goddess of the gods
lov n. (poetic) t6q m. (poetic) t6q m. (poetic) t6q m.
violet
6yeipro dnorv6co
+
noporvrlor
dat.
aip6ro, oipqoro, ell"ov o1po, dprir, frpa
oOl.f
f.
courtyard reed-pipe
oil,6g m. o0t6q
o$t6g o0tr1
o0rf1
:
6 o0t6q
:
f1
o0n1
airrlv: Eoutrlv oir6v: 6out6v -eic -6 pop6g -eio -6 ppo66g -eio -6 ppo16g -eio -6 Bo06q
p(oq m.
battle-cry herself
ff6 + gen. +
gen.
love
I love passionately future of )rbyro (l say) I ask
Iorq tcbv
strife, discord
-o0oo -6v
running
arrow porson
rust you go (2 sg. opt. ofelpr) going @arti.ciple of ei1n)
be! (sg. imperative)
Io0t Io0r I0t
go! (sg. tmperotive)
rorv6q -f1 -6v reivoq -r1 -ov (= 6reivoq)
that
rev6q -f1 -6v roil.oq -r1 -ov rotv6q -r1 -6v
empry hollow common
know! (sg. imperative)
himself deep heavy
slow short
strength, force
66ro
6e?
the same this woman
-coto6 m.
life
f.
66opor
himself the same she (herself) or same
o6tq (f. of o6to6) d0ttl f. boetic)
pia
I take
I raise
dpcoq,
2i5 |
I bind I need, lack I need; I beg
it is necessary
xt
-6v (Homeric)
xtov, -ovoq usu. f. 2gr
p6lco
new, strange
going
pillar snow
I am likely to, intend to, am about to I am an object of carelthought
l:1ql
Yeu6eiq gil'or | 217
ve'iqet6 eil,ot
p6l.e (6 p6l.e) p6l,r, p6)',rrog n. p6?',oE, -oug n. p6l,o6, -oug n. p6l'eog -& -ov (poetic) p6?udg -orva -av
my friend honey
t6orE, n6oeog f.
t6o6 m. (acc. sg. n6ow) (poetic)
husband, i',,. "
limb
foot
song
ro69, rco66g m. (dat. pl. rooi(v)) a6cog -r1 -ov
miserable black
ctpcteid f.
campaign, warfare campaign, army
drink
qtpdte4la, -arog n. p610og m. po1l6g m. 6261.o6 m.
ctpcref
hardship, trouble crowbar, bar crowd
v6pog m.
ro,
grpcre6opor
erpoqt6g erpatrly6
m.
+
law pasture
crpct6re6ov
v6pro
I dlstribute; I pasture
crpcurirlg, -oD m.
olpor, olopor o1por (poetic) otprir(or
ol oT
ol
',
I'think
tcOra
la0rd (=td sild.)
L wage war general
army army camp, army soldier
,n.
alas!
how great?
lcommand
gen.
orpar6g m. c.caon& f.
vop6g m. (poetic)
these things the same things
I cry alas!
,to,him, to her (usually reflexive); nom. pl. of the deftnite afticle who (nom. pl. of tlle relative prorrelan) to where
.to whom? (4ot. (dst. pl. of nq
,
oiog -d -ov @oetic) oto6 -d, -ov
alone of what sort, such as
dpoE, -oug n.
mountain, boundary
6pog m.
boundary
o$ror (pl. of o0rog) o$ror
these men indeed not
oUtrg
pqtig (= pf1 +tr6)
no one in case anyone, etc.
pflu6, -r(6)o9 f.
intelligence
-sog f.
late
dyrE, -ero6 f.
appearance
dyov n.
cooked food
noiog -d -ov nore?v
of what kind? to do
noiq f. (epic & Ionic)
grass, meadow
rlorv)
pt of
:
ri)
any, some)
retribution, punishment I pay a price I stretch
(Homeric)
I put to flight
I[l.
lear
I am afraid "6,,
6v6
(acc. sg.
.l
(poetiq)
lock of hair,
fol,iage ,i
alas!
shoulder ra\ r, savage
,
|
tips | 2i9 |
Some
4 The gnomic aorist: the aorist can be used in maxims and proverbs
Some tips
(yv6pot). (ln English, as often in Greek also, these are usually expressed in the present tense, e.g. 'Too many cooks spoil the broth.' But compare 'Curiosity killed the cat.')
While almost all words of the second declension have their neuter nom. and acc. singular in -ov, the following words (which are or can be pronouns) have them in -o:
6
66e 69d
t6
the
t66e
this
oDroq
TODTO
who, which
this eKflvoq €Kttvo that oDroq ODTO self, the same; it (acc.) dl.l"oq dl.).o another, the other Even if you do not learn the whole system of Greek accents, it is
worthwhile noting: (a) rig, rivog (with an accent over the first syllable) means .who? what?'
nq, trv6g (an enclitic, either with no accent or with an accent over
(b)
the second syllable) means 'some, any, a'. -6ro verbs: norei: the accent shows that this is in the present indicative active (3 sg.) or passive (2 sg.), 'he/she does', 'you are made ...,. noier: the accent shows that this is the singular present imperative:
'do!'.
(c)
i,
oi and oi do not have accents when they are definite articles, but do have them (ii, oT and oi) when they are relative pronouns. (d) dl"l.o : other things dl,l"6 : but The historic present: to convey excitement, vividness or immediacy, the present tense may be used of an action in the past: qpflooq pe ... naier re ni( rtri dpnri(er p6oov roi ir60er pe eiq rdg l.r0otopiog. (Demosthenes 53.12) after watching out for me, he hits me with his fist and grabs me round the middle and tried to shove me into the quarries. In this example note also the shift into the imperfect. The historic present is rare in English and it is generally advisable to translate it into an English past tense.
Frilpn ... petd pdv gpovfloeo4 6q6l.qoev, dveu 6d to6tqg nl,eiro toUq dlovtog dBl"orye. (lsocrates 1.6) Strength joined with judgement does good, but without it, it does greater harm to those who have it. 5 The future tense: (a) The Attic future of verbs with stems ending in v is often a contracted form with the letter €. pevrir (6ro) I wait, wait for p6vco I show goivro
v6pol dyeipro
pol"tdr (6ro) veprir (6
throw, hit distribute, pasture wake (X) up
(b) The Attic future of verbs ending in -i(ro which have more than two syllables is also a contracted form with the letter e as follows: | consider voprri vopi(co Potential clauses: note how what is in effect the apodosis (main clause) of a conditional sentence containing dv is frequently found without the protasis ('if'clause), which is implied (see pp. 183-7). We call this usage 'potential':
(6
toftou tig
dv oot t&v6pd6 ... &pe(vcov n0p60n; (Sophocles, Ajax
rL9-20) Who could you have found better than this man
[if you had
looked or
similarl? 6iq dq rdv cr$rdv roropdv orir &v dpBoiqq. (Heraclitus, quoted at Plato, Cratinus 402a) You could not step twice into the same river [if you were trying to cross it or similarl. When the subjects of the verb are different persons, the verb is first person plural if one of the subjects is first person, second person if the subjects are second and third persons: 6peiq 6i roi 61tir rou c66e l.6yopev. (Plato, Laus 66lb) But you and l, I suppose, say these things.
nfvreqdv 6peiq roi oi d},l,or A0qvoior dvootdvteg 6ni td pf,p' dpo6i(ete. (Demosthenes i8.171)
I 2zo ; some tips All of you and the rest of the Athenians would stand up and go to the speaker's platform.
8 The verbal adjectives in -t6og and -t6q: For the use of the gerundive form in -t6oq, see pp. 793-4.
The endings -r,6c,-ti1-t6v are added to verbs in the same way. These verbal adjectives either have the same meaning as a perfect passive participle, e.g. nor6eu-t6g (educated), tar-r6g (ordered); or (more frequently) they convey possibility, e.g. 6pd-t6g (visible, f.e. that can be seen), npdr-t6g (that may be done). Many -169 forms fall into both categories. Some of them are active, e.g. pur6q (flowing). 9 The letter v at the end of prefixes (€v, o6v) changes (is 'assimilated,) before certain consonants to assist pronunciation: before B, p, n, g, y it becomes p - oupBoivol (l come togethe0 before y, r, l, 1it becomes y ou116
nol,irorg.
I keep away (the danger) for the advantage of the citizens, l.e. I defend the citizens.
1
I
(b) 0aupd(ot can be used with the genitive to mean 'I wonder at' well as with the accusative in the sense 'I admire'.
as
ro0iocqpr: these two sentences, the first with a transitive form of the verb, the second with an intransitive form, will repay study: ror6o'rqoo 6p0g eiq d00piov. I reduced you to despair (literally, I placed you into despair).
rot6orrlv
eig dnopiov. I was reduced to helplessness (IiteralLy, I was placed into helplessness).
12 A vowel which is naturally short becomes 'heavy' when followed by two consonants. (More correctly, it is the syllable which is heavy.) However, it may remain short (i.e. the syllable remains ,light') if the vowel is followed by a pair of consonants in which the first is a mute (or stop) (r F q t 6 0r y D and the second aliquidor nasal (l p pv). 1 3 If you are looking up a word beginning (uv- or (up- in a dictionary and cannot find it, look it up under ouv- or oup-. See p. 59.
Appendices
Accents | 223
Accents There are three accents in ancient Greek. These indicate the musical pitch of the syllable on which they are placed: ' (high pitch) the acute ' (low pitch or possibly a falling of the voice) the grave ^ (high pitch falling to low) the circumflex
Thus the grave can only stand on the last syllable not followed by a punctuation mark or an enclitic. Note how in the example above tiprl becomes dp{ because of its different position in the sentence. Oeoi would have appeared as 0eoi if had been the last word in its sentence.
I The
it
circumflex
The circumflex can fall only on one of the last two syllables and only on a long vowel or a diphthong. If the last syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong, a circumflex cannot stand on the second-last syllable. So:
Almost all Greek words have their own accent. Among those which do not
6reivo6
dreivl
6retvo
are:
. o o .
6, ff , oi,
ai (nom. of the deftnite article)
- how) (: ei, ritq when, as, that) eie, 6v, dr, rbg (: to)
o0, rbq (
See also
EI
ror the purposes of accentuation -ot and -or of the nom. plural counl as SHORT. So:
Enclitics below.
I The rules of accentuation
I Names of the accents Each of the accents has a technical name:
third-last
I The acute and the grave The acute can fall on any of the last three syllables. If the last syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong, it can fall only on one of the last
two. So:
gi),rog dpy6prov gtl"io pooil,erig tiprl If an acute falls on the last syllable, it becomes grave when followed by another word, unless it is immediately followed by a punctuation mark or the next word is an enclitic (see below). So: f1 dprl; f1 dpil iiv oi 0eoi 6r66oorv. What sort of honour? The honour that the gods give.
roio
acute
second-last proparoxytone paroxytone
oxytone barytone
Srave
circumflex
last
properispomenon
perispomenon
|
I zz+
; Rccents
Accents | 225
I Enclitics Enclitics are linked by accent to the previous word. They 'lean on' it (6yrl,ivol (l lean on), hence 'enclitic'). They often have no accent of their own and are likely to throw an acute accent onto the final syllable of the previous word, if possible. So:
dvflp ag
E}rlrr6,
pot 66rp6v zr.
Some man gave me a gift.
I The position of the accent I Nouns and adjectives
The occasions when an enclitic cannot place an acute on the final syllable of the previous word are as follows:
1
The enclitic will cause a final grave accent on the previous word to revert to its natural accent, an acute, e.g. dvfp trg.
2
If the accent of the previous word is a circumflex on the last syllable, the enclitic causes no change (Fo0q ttg, cf. 6rip6v tt). If the accent on the previous word is an acute on the second{ast,
3
Enclitics of more than one syllable have an accent on their second syllable when the previous word has an acute on its penultimate (secondlast) syllable (paroxytone), e.g. l"6yor nv6g. Cf. 3 above.
The accent on the nominative stays on the same syllable in the other cases as far as the general rules allow Note the following: 1 Words of the first and second declensions with an acute on the last syllable of the nominative singular have a circumflex on the final syllable in the genitives and datives. So: oog6q: oogo0, oog{l; oogdlv, oogoiq oogri: oogflg, oogf; oopdrv, oogoig oog6v: oogo0, oo
again the enclitic causes no change to that previous word, e.g. pfltrop
flg.
4
Strings of enclitics throw their accents back onto each other. So: ... lf anyone is saying anything to you ... Note that a word can end up with two accents.
4
The principal enclitics are:
o . o . .
indefinite ttq (someone, anyone, some) the indefinite adverbs (nou, nor, etc.
see
p. 52)
the present indicative of eipi (l am) (except the 2 sg., but see p. 93) the personal pronouns: p€, !rou, pou os, ooD, oo1 (except when o6, oo0, 6, o6,
re (and), vuv ((logical) &212)
oi
now, then), nou
(l suppose), ye, tot
5
Monosyllables of the third declension have their accents on the final syllable of the genitive and dative. So: po0q (cow): Bo69, poi; podrv, Fouoi(v) Note n61,ecoq, n6l"e@v and dotecog, dorecov (and the declension of ll.eroq on p. 34). These are exceptions to the rule that if the last syllable is or contains a long vowel or diphthong, the accent can fall
only on one of the last two syllables. If a diphthong has an accent, it is placed over the second vowel. poorl.ebg, oogoiq.
the present indicative of
ooi are emphatic);
.
-
All first declension nouns have a circumflex on the -drv of the genitive plural.
3
€irigri ool gqorv
5
2
(see
pp. 208
So
|
| 220
; Rccents
lVerbs Generally the accent is placed as far back as possible. (This is almost always true of finite verbs.) The accent is nearly always acute. But note: 1 For the purposes of accentuation only, final -or counts as short, except in the optative. Thus: no0oor aor. act. infinitive or2sg. aor. mid. imperative no6erot 3 sg. pres. indic. mid./pass. nor5oor 3 sg. aor. opt. act. If the infinitive ends in -vor, it will have its accent on the penultimate syllable and the nom. sg. masculine and neuter participles will be accented on the last syllable. Thus: eTvor
-
dlv, oOoa, dv (m. & n. gen. sg. dvtoq)
neirour6vo,r - nenourcirg, nenouruio, nerour6g (m. & n. gen. sg. nercour6roq) nouoOflvar - nouoOeig, nouoOeioo, no,uo06v (m. & n. gen. sg. nouo06woqJ
Dialect I Some key features
The Greek after the equation marks is Attic. 1 The augment may be omitted - lOoe : dl.Doe (he loosed), Fn : dpn (he went). 2 Nominative singular: Attic -o always appears as -4: 06pq (door), frbpn (country). But N.B. Oed (goddess): there is no Attic equivalent. 3 Genitive singular in -oro: 8rilpoto = 8cilpou (of a gift); also in -do, -e
4
If the final syllable contains a short vowel, or is -or (except in the optative), a circumflex is obligatory over a long penultimate vowel or diphthong when it is accented, e.g. eivar (to be) as opposed to 6r66vor (to give).
In the 2nd aorist (see p. 69), verbs have their accents on the last syllable of the active infinitive, participle and 2 sg. imperative. Thus (from lnppdvco (l take)): LoBeiv
- l.oprbv, l"opo0oo, l.op6v - l,op6 Contracted verbs have a circumflex on the resulting contracted syllable when the first of the two contracted syllables was accented before contraction. Thus nor6o -+ nor6. They have the acute when the second of the syllables was accented, or when the last syllable is long. Thus nore-6tco -r noreitco and dpo-oiqv --r tiprfirlv. The contracted syllable is, of course, unaccented if neither of the two syllables was accented. Thus nole-e -+ noier (2 sg. pres. imperative active). What is the difference in meaning between gtl,e? and gil,er?
of Homeric dialect
5
Dative plural: (a) Where Attic has -org we find -flg or -fror: 06pqor : 0riporq (doors), n6),qor : r6l,orq (gates); r{g and tflor : roiq (definite article, relative pronoun). (b 2nd declension words can end -otor: 6drporor : 6
(c) 3rd declension words can end -(o)or or -roo1: n66eoot and noooi : nooi (feet); Fel6eoor, B6l,eoor and B6l.eor : B6l.eor (missiles). The moveable nu can be added to all of these. The definite article: (a) most commonly means 'he', 'she', 'it', 'they' or 'this', 'that'.
O) oi and oi appear also as roi and toi. (c) Forms identical with the definite article are used
6 7
as the relative
pronoun, though the masculine nominative singular of the relative is 6q as in Attic. The use of the enclitics oi (to him, to her) androt (to you (sg.)). Active infinitives often end in -pev or its extended form -p€vor: drou6pevor : drcoferv (to hear); reOvdpev(or) : re0v&vot (to be dead); dpev, dppev, dpevtrr, dppevor : elvor (to be).
I zza ; oiatect
8
Dialect | 229
Homer generally does not contract verbs ending in which would contract in Attic.
-601, -dro and -6ro
9 rev (re, r') can be used as well as dv, with the same force. 10 Tmesis, i.e. the separation of a preposition which is the prefix to a verb, from that verb: npdq p00ov derrev = p00ov npooeirev (he 11
addressed a word). Particles frequently used in Homer: dpa, d.p, pa so, next (for transition) 6fl indeed (for emphasis, often of time)
rr
truly, certainly (for emphasis) just, even (for emphasis); although and; lou know, let me tell you (to show that a
ro1
comment is generalizing) | tell you (for asssertion); can also
f, rEep
:
oor (to you)
I Some key features of Herodotus' lonic
dialect
The Greek after the equation marks is Attic. 1 Herodotus often has q where Attic has n (especially after e, r, p): ip6pn : fp6pd (day); rpiypo = npOlpc (business, affair).
2
3 4 5 6
Herodotus uses -6co for the genitive singular of nouns like veqvirlg (: vedvioq, young man): verlvlero : vedvfou. Herodotus uses -6orv for the genitive plural of nouns like tipr1, 0dl,crooo, lrilpq, rprtfq: Ilepo'6cov : flepodlv (of the Persians). (This is contracted in Attic.) Dative plurals of the first and second declensions end in -or: &ypoior (fields), roior (definite article), ro6roror (these). Herodotus uses oo where Attic has rt: 0dl"oooo : 0ril.orto (sea), nprloool : np&tco (l do). Herodotus can have: er for Attic e: (eivo6 : (6voq (foreigner, guest, host) ou for Attic o: po0voq : p6voq (alone) qt for Attic er: oirrltog : oireiog (private, home-grown).
|
Herodotus often does not contract verbs ending in -6
in Attic. With a few exceptions, there were no 'h' sounds in Ionic. Thus aspiration is often omitted: dntrv6opot : &
12 The following Herodotean forms Herodotus dpeo)ur6v (acc.)
myself
6orur6v (acc.)
himself
6
€o0oo, d6v
roiog (6roiog) r6te (6r6te) rdrg (6ro4) prv (acc.
oi (dat. 6v
-
enclitic) enclitic)
are well worth noting:
Attic ipout6v 6out6v o0oo, dv noiog (6noiog)
being of what kind
d6v,
wnen how
n6re (6r6te)
him, her to him, to her, to it
no comparable form rare in Attict
therefore
o0v
n6rg (6nrog)
I New Testament Greek The Greek of the New Testament differs significantly from that of Plato or Xenophon. But it is not (as was once thought) a special variety of Greek used by Jews of the Near East, or by the Holy Spirit. On the whole, it reflects the everyday Greek of the first century AD.
I except as an indirect reflexive (see pp. 148-9).
II z3o I oiatect Because of the political and commercial power of Athens, as well as the prestige of its literature, Attic became the dominant Greek dialect in the late fifth century BC. It gradually evolved (with an admixture of Ionic elements) into the so-called Koine (f rorvil Dtdl.ertoq : the common dialect) of the Hellenistic period. The main catalyst was the fourth-century rise of Macedon under Philip the second and his son Alexander the Great. The Macedonians were anxious to assert their Greekness (Demosthenes called them barbarians - 3.16,3.24 etc.), but their own language (apparently unintelligible to other Greeks) lacked the cultural piestige to match their imperial ambitions. 'Great Attic', already dominani outside its region of origin, met the need. As Alexander moved eastwards through the former Persian empire to the borders of India, founding (according tJ tradition) seventy cities, this form of Greek was from the outset employed as the official language. It became the universal vernacular of the eistern Mediterranean, a form of Greek simplified and modified to be a suitable vehicle for ordinary people of many races. The New Testament comes to us in Greek. However, the main language of Jesus and his disciples was Aramaic (a semitic language related t6 Hebrew), and the gospel writers give several direct quotations of this. But the culture of Palestine was multi-lingual. Hebrew was widely spoken around Jerusalem. The inscription on the cross 'Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews' was written in Hebrew Latin and Greek (John 1g.20) . Some key features of New Testament Greek: 1 There is a general simplification of both accidence and syntax.
2
3 4
In accidence, difficulties and irregularities are frequently ironed out: unusual forms of comparative adjectives are made regular; third declension adjectives are rare; monosyllabic nouns (irregular in declension) are replaced; verbs in -pr are given the endings of verbs in -co; first (regular) aorist endings often replace 2nd aorists (see pp. 69-70); middle verbs are often replaced by active verbs with reflexive pronouns; the optative is rare; the dual number has disappeared. ivo has acquired new r6les: it now introduces result clauses, indirect statements and third person direct commands. Purpose is often expressed by the infinitive or by the genitive singular of the definite article with the infinitive (i.e. the gerund - see p. tZ+), p61,l"er ydp 'Hpor6lg (qceiv rd nor6iov, toO dao),6oor o016. (Matthew
2.r3)
For Herod intends to seek the young child (in order) to destroy him.
Dialect | 231
Prepositions are used where the case alone would have sufficed in classical Attic. There are changes in the cases that prepositions take (the accusative advancing at the expense of others). Pronouns are used when the sense would be clear without them. Diminutive forms are used apparently with the same sense as the nouns of which they are diminutives, e.g. prBl.opi8rov (book), diminutive of BiBl,oq. There are about 900 words (about l0o/o of. the total vocabulary) not found in classical authors. There are numerous Semitic idioms, e.g. 6y6vero introducing another
verb (traditionally translated'it came to pass that ...'). The narrative is generally without complication and clauses tend to follow one after another in a straightforward manner.
|
The dual |
The dual
lVerbs In verbs, duals are almost entirely limited to the second and third person. The following endings are attached to the stem + vowel-ending of the relevant tense (e.g. e in the present tense of na6ro):
.'
If a verb has two people or things as its subject, or if a noun or adiective
denotes two people or things, Greek can use a form called the dual.
I Nouns and adjectives declension
2 3 (primary)t (historic)r
active -rov
-o0ov
-rov
-o0ov
-rqv
-oOqv
lrc6oerov
2nd declension
3rd declension
dual
€nauodtlv
nc6oltov nouooioOqv
nom./acc. -d
gen./dat. -otv
middle/passive
For e,rample:
The following endings are used:
lst
-(o
-e (sometimes -er)
-o1v
-olv
The dual of the definite article:
the the the the
two two two two
of of of of
you/them will stop them stopped youfthem stop (pres. subj. act.) them stop themselves (aor. opt. mid.)
elpt (l am) has the following dual forms: (present indicative) 6ot6v (imperf ect indicative) fioalv fiorov, (subjunctive) frrov or e1qtov, e{r1v or elrlrqv dotov, dorov eTrov
dual
nom,/acc. gen./dat.
t<6 toiv
rcir toCv
tr6
rotv
For example: tcb
233 |
rol,rb dv0prbnco
the two handsome people
roiv ooga0v 0uyar6porv of the two wise daughters
I See pp. 152-3.
(optative) (imperatives, 2nd and 3rd persons)
Some literary terms | 235
|
aposiopesis a device in which the speaker breaks off before completing the
Some literary terms
sentence:
r' i06l.qorv'Ol,ripnroq doteponqttlq | 6( 606rov otu
einep yap
... to:
.,.t,n"
alliteration the recurrence of the same or a similar consonant (cl. assonance), especially at the beginning of words or syllables: zov 6d zo6prp ya)'re|cp rcourflpo ur11,6o v6ov EX9 pii Aa),apw rcar t Tet ravrQ gdng. (pindaa pythions I 95-6) Universal condemnation seizes hold of Phalaris, the man of pitiless spirit who burned men in his bronze bull .
The use of alliteration imparts emphasis, and the effect this creates depends on the meaning of the words emphasized.
anadiplosis the repetition (literally 'doubling') of one or several words, e.g. Byron's 'The Isles of Greece, the Isles of Greece, Where burning Sappho loved and sung' (Don Juan, Canto 3). @flBor 66, @r1por n6),r9 &oruyeircov, peO' f p6pav piov 6r p6or1g tfrg 'E),lli6oq dvf pnoorot. (Aeschines 3.133) Thebes, Thebes, a neighbouring city, has been uprooted from the midst of Greece in the course of a single day.
anaphora the repetition of a word or phrase in two or more successive clauses:
o0ror ydp nol,l"oirg pdv tdrv nol.it6rv eig toiq ro),epioug d[r1],ooov, nol"l"oUg 6' d8irroq d.norteivovteq drd
antithesis the contrasting of ideas emphasized by the arrangement of words: 6t9:'7iq dv nop'doni8q I otflvor 06l"orp'dv p&l"l,ov fl teretv dza(. (Euripides, Medea 250-l) since I would rather stand three times in the batile line than give birth once.
Here something like 'what can we do about it?' must be understood.
apostrophe the author 'turns away' (dnootp6qeror) from his narrative (told in the third person) to address one of his characters: or)6i o60ev, Mev61"oe, 0eoi pdropeg l,eldOovto I d0dvoror. (Homer, Ili.ad 4.127-8) and you, Menelaus, the gods, the blessed immortals, did not forget. Homer and other poets appear to use this device to express sympathy for
their characters. assonance the occurrence of similar vowel sounds in words close to each other (cf . alliteration) :
rarfiyev fiy:lu inev riq pr,'Iav nd6ov. (Euripides, Bacchae t065) he pulled the branch down, down, down, to the black ground. r60er pdOog. (Aeschylus, Agomemnon through suffering (comes) knowledge.
1,77)
asyndeton the omission of conjunctions (such as 'and' or 'but') where these would usually occur: npooneo6vteg dpdlovro, dr60ouv 6co0o0vto, dnorov dnoiovro. (Xenophon, Education of Cyrus 7.1.38)
falling upon them, they fought, they pushed (and) were pushed, they struck (and) were struck. bathos the juxtaposition of the intense or important and the trivial: in Aristophanes' Birds, Basileia (Royalty) is the keeper of the thunderbolt of Zeus, of good counsel, good sense, the dockyards, abuse, the paymaster and the three-obol bits (1538-41).
I zeO ; sor"
literary terms
chiasmus (adjective chiasticl a pair of balanced phrases where the order of the elements of the second reverses that of the first: tv . .. odlp' dlov roi V0Inv piov (Demosthenes 19.227) having a single body and a single soul
This patterning can be represented with crossing diagonal lines like the Greek letter chi:
,,rii><;ff
closure the sense of completion or resolution at the conclusion of a literary work or part of a literary work. Often conclusions deny us this sense of completion. For example, at the end of Homer's Odyssey, the peace that has been established by the hero on his island by his slaughter of the suitors is a disconcertingly uneasy one.
ellipsis the shortening of a sentence or phrase by the omission of words which can be understood: €( 6v61
veirog dv6priv (rivorpov (Sophocles, Antigone 794) kindred strife of men (/or strife of kindred men) enjambement (single-word enjambement) running a sentence over the end of a line of verse and then ending it after the first word of the new line lending emphasis to that word: ntnr,er npdg o06oq p0piorg oipcirlpoorv I llev0eiq. (Euripides, Baccltae 1112-13) He fell to the ground with innumerable cries of sorrow, did Pentheus.
euphemism the substitution of a mild or roundabout expression for one considered improper or too harsh or blunt: e0qp6vr1 (the kindly time) for 'night', Eipevi8eq (the kindly ones) for the Furies, dprotep6q (better) for 'left', the unlucky side.
Some literary terms | 237
hendiadys a single idea expressed through two nouns or verbs: iv ri),i riptroi te (Euripides, Helen 226) in the sea and the waves (for in the waves of the sea) The word 'hendiadys' is Greek for 'one by means of two'.
hyperbaton the dislocation of normal word order, by way of displacing one part of one clause into another; the effect is often impossible to reproduce in a literal English translation of the Greek:
oi 6i
a0r6g,
dr
npdg 06cov, M6vov,
ti qiq dpetilv etvot;
(Plato, Meno
7rd) but you yourself, by the gods, O Meno, what do you say that virtue is? Here the hyperbaton seems to reflect the informality and emphasis of
conversation: 'Now you yourself, Meno opinion?'
-
come on
- what's your
hypeftole the use of exaggerated terms, not to be taken literally (cf. Iitotes). Thus p6pror, which literally means 10,000, can (with the accentuation pOpiot) mean 'countless' or 'infinite'. hysteron proteron the reversal of the normal (temporal) order of events:
eipotd r'dp
irony the expression of one's meaning by using words of the opposite meaning in order to make one's remarks forceful. dramatic irony occurs when a character in a play uses words which have a different meaning for the speaker and for the audience, who know the
truth of the situation. This is a device which is used with particular force by Sophocles. For example, in Oedipus Tjtrannus he makes highly effective use of the fact that the blind seer Teiresias can see the truth while Oedipus, despite his gift of sight, cannot. Socratic irony the refusal to claim expertise, frequently employed by Socrates to provoke or confuse those in discussion with him. juxtaposition the placing of words next to each other for effect (see also oxymoron): 6qpop6pog pood.e6q (Homer, Iliad. 1.231) king who feeds on his people
|
I zSS 1 Sor.
Some literary terms | 239
literary terms
liminality the use of location, especially involving passing through doors or gates, to make a symbolic point. In Euripides' play, Medea comes out of the house, to which her female r6le has confined her, to deliver the most assertive feminist manifesto in ancient literature (214).
litotes the use of understatement, involving a negative, to emphasize one's meaning (cf. hyperbole). Thus, o0r dl,iyor (not a few) can mean 'many' and o0r dgovr1q (not obscure) can mean 'famous'. Cf. o116' oiitor ror6rg (and not so badly), the words of a man who threw a tile at a dog but hit his stepmother (Plutarch, Septem Sapientium Convtvium I47c).
metaphor the application of a word or phrase to something it does not apply to literally, indicating a comparison, for example 'a sea (rl.ri6
ydp
6pCo,
rd
for I see by sound, as the saying
is.
metonymy a form of expression by which people or things can take their name from something with which they are associated. Thus 06orpov (a theatre) can be used of spectators, innog (a horse) of cavalry, and i106eq (fish) of a fish-market. In poetic texts, the names of gods are frequently used to denote their areas of control. Thus Dionysus (or Bacchus) can mean'wine', Aphrodite'love', etc.; cf.. synecdoclrc. onomatopoeia words or combinations of words, the sound of which suggests their sense, for example, Bpererer6( ro6( rod( (the croaking of frogs) in Aristophanes'Frogs (209). In the following hexameter line, the rhythm, with its smoothly running light syllables, imitates the rolling of Sisyphus' stone:
paradox a statement which apparently contradicts itself but in fact makes meaningful point: ei ydp d6gel.ov, dr Kpitrov, oioi r' eivor oi nol"l"oi td p6yroto rcord €pyd(eoOor, ivo oioi t' floov roi dyoOd td pfyrota. (Plato, Cnto
then down again to the plain rolled the shameless stone. l
oxymoron the juxtaposition (see above) of two words of contradictory meaning to emphasize the contradiction: v6pov civopov (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 7142) a discordant song The word 'oxymoron' is Greek for 'sharp-blunt'. and is an oxymoron itself.
a
44d)
if only, Crito, the majority were able to do the greatest evils, so that they might have been able to do the greatest good deeds as well. paronomasia a punning play on words:
oi ydp tdv tp6nov d1"1"d tdv t6nov pet{},Io(ev. (Aeschines 3.78) for he changed not his disposition but his position. periphrasis a circumlocutory or roundabout way of saying things. Thus in verse, Bl,6nerv
reiro
p6ytrq peyol,
prolepsis the use of an adjective to anticipate its result; i.e. the adjective will not be applicable until the action of the verb which controls it has been completed: rp6
to0tov
979)
trOttg dnerra n66ov5e rul"ivSeto l&og dvor6fq. (Homer, Odyssey 11.598)
|
and yet, Thebes did not train you to be base. a figure of speech in which one thing is compared explicitly with another; in English, the words 'like' or 'as' often indicate a simile. In Homer, for example, human beings are frequently compared to animals or birds. The simile is a notable feature of epic - hence the term 'epic simile'.
simile
I z+O I sor.
titerary terms
syllepsis an expression in which the same word is used in two phrases in two different ways but makes literal sense in both, e.g. 'she went home in a flood of tears and a sedan chair' (Charles Dickens; The Hckwick Papers) and 'Miss Nipper shook her head and a tin canister, and began unasked to make the tea' (Dickens, Dombey and Son): 1pf poro cel,o0vte6 toritotg ... roi lriprroq (Plato, Crito 4Bc) paying (Literally) money and paying (metaphorically) thanks to his men Cf..
zeugma.
synecdoche a form of expression in which the part is used to imply the whole. Thus 66pu (plank) can mean 'ship', while the other meaning of 66pu (the shaft of a spear) can lead to 'spear' and 'war'. CI. metonymy. tautology repeating the same thing in different ways: dyrbv p6yog, I nfnpnq otevuypdv ori6B 6orp6rov rev6q. (Euripides, Hecubo.229-30) a great contest,
full of groans and not empty of tears.
zeugma a figure of speech in which a verb or adjective is applied to two nouns, though it is literally applicable to only one of them, e.g. .with tearful eyes and mind' (cf. syllepsls):
Vocabulary Throughout the following lists, the symbols t and i indicate the verbs whose principal parts are given in the tables on pp. 98-109 and 110-19 respectively. The genitive is omitted for regular nouns of the first and second declensions ending in -q, -o, -a and -og; for their endings, see pp. 25-6.
I Greek
opr. stemofrdya
&yc066 -q -6v
good Agasias
Ayooio6 tdly6XX"ro
tiye 6rl dyvo6ro dyopd(
you will know (Iiterally, see) neither voice nor form of any of mortals.
d6rr6o
The Greek word (e0ypo means 'a yoking'.
English
&4ay'
oUte grovilv oiire tou tlopgnv ppotdlv ciyer. (Aeschylus, prometheus
Bound 2l)
-
rolol6vro oit6ro
trlnog -d -ov ( + gen.)
rdro6o
n.
dl,l.d d},)"d
buy
lead, bring wrong
dei dei6o, +{6
drpov
I announce come on nowl am ignorant of; I fail to understand
roi
arways
I sing Athenian arways
cnoose
perceive, realize, notice dishonour ask (for) responsible (for), guilty (of) I hear (+ gen. of person & acc. or gen. of thingJ
summit but; well then but also
lZ+Z l ereeV,- English
vocabulary
d),),r1)"ouq -oq -c, (acc.)
d),l"oq, dl,l,q, d),},o
dpo
ffpo(o f. tdpopcdvco eig
+
asg.
ripnpcio f. Apd,orq, Apdorog m. dpel"6co
d,pqro'Bqt6ro dv + indicative
+ optative + subjunctive dvoBoivro
Greek
one another, each other other, else at the same time
Aoiq f. (Ionic spelling)
Asia
hre
tdgrrv6opor
unrewarded
9p6xro
barbarian; foreigner heavy; annoying king damage, hurt I shout I (run to) help I consider, make up my mind I wish, want I wet, drench
ydp
for (second word)
Y€
at least; at any rate (enclitic)
I commit a wrong against wrong, fault
urit6v. o0qv, a0r6 (acc.) orit6v : 6out6v (acc.)
Amasis
arir6q, o0tr1,
lgoup
6 oir6q,
o0ro0
:
11
oit6
o0u1, td
6outo0 (gen.)
I read
dvnyroioq -d -ov
necessary I spend (money) man; husband
pripBopog -ov popfq -eio -6
human being, man, woman worthy (of + gen.) I lead away all
pxdBl f.
I deny I march off, ride off
rpoflopar
dvf1p, dv5p6g m.
dv0pronog c. d(toq -a -ov tdrriy
iindoa, iindv
dnopv6opor td,nel"o,6vco
tdn6plopcr tdn6lopor + gen. rdntyoo tdnoB6l,l,ro idro6i6copr tdnoOvqorco
dnorpfntrrr tdnorteiv
&p'o0 ...; dpy6prov n. tdpX,ro
ait6
'dg6l,rr.'l
tdvoyryvcitorro r&vdl"iorcrr
-6o4 m.
Boorl,er5g,
poriro poq06co ( + dat.)
poul,e6opor
I go away
I refrain from I am distant I throw away I give away, give back I die; I am killed I hide, conceal
tye ),6ro
I laugh
Trv-
aar. stemofryiyvopar race land
lkitl
16voq, -oug n. Tq f.
tliyvopor
Apollo I am dead (intr. pf. o/+dn6)"l.Dpr) I am at a loss (for + gen.) (see
p. 207)
isn't ...? surely ...?
silver, money I rule, am in command begi n
1l.drooo f. (Attic yl.ritta)
p.
(+
163)
'o€1
I fear I show
6ei6
gen.);
l6eirv0pr 6erv6q
-f
I happen, become; I am born tongue and, but (second word) I fear (pf. of6ei6co) it is necessary for X (acc.) to Y (infin.)
66
666orro (see
| 2a3l
d2griprotog -ov
wagon
indeftntte (p. 195)
English vocabu lary
inasmuch as, seeing that again, further, moreover I play on the reed-pipe; I make music him, her, it himself self (outside article + noun) the same (ofu69 inside article + noun) of himself, his own I tow away I arrive
a$ o0l.6ro
I am negligent I disagree, dispute conditional (pp. 1B -5) condittonal or potential (pp. 187 & 2i9)
-
-6v
terrible; strange, clever
244 | Greek
-
English vocabulary
Greek
I have dinner ten I tie up, bind
6ernv6co
66ro 166ro
-
English vocabu lary
if
ei ei pn
unless, if ... not
reipi teipr
I am (see p. 93) I shall go (fut. of+Epyopar) into, to; with regard to I shall go into I go into I propose
6n 6fl)"og -q -ov
indeed (for emphasis) clear
6ql.6o 6f,to
I show
reloerpr
then (for emphasis)
reio6plopor
because of
eloqy6opor
why?
6K
6roorog -q -ov
eacn
8iorta f.
I slander way of life
6rooreuri(opor
I prepare; I equip myself
Erdtepog -a -ov dr66pcrr (aor. d(66etpo)
each (of two) I skin I teach (thoroughly)
6rct + acc. 6rd ti; tDroBdl,l"ro
t8ro
r6r6riorro +6i6ropr
+
+
acc.
out of, from
gen.
I am at variance with, am inconsistent with I teach
1Cr6r6&orro
I give I judge
'El.riteto f.
Elateia
6l,drrrov -ov Cl.eu0epio f. cl.e-
smaller; less; fewer
Greece Greek my
6rrtl(
judge, juror
6irq
justice
f.
elg
dreivog -t1 -o 6i"-
616tr
Decause
'ELX6;,-ri6oq f.
6rrfr
in two ways
tDrcirrco
"Ell,qv, -qvoq m.
I pursue
dp6g
66(o f.
good repute, opinion house, home I enslave
6v
t6pd
ldo
Bvro00o
6p6pe
at a run, at speed
66pog m. (often in pl.) 6oul,6co, 6oul,6opor
+66vopor
-f -6v + dat. dv gul,orf
€vero
*
gen. (usu. follows noun)
o9
that eor. stemofraip{iro
freedom aor. stem o/ tdplopor, eipt
in, on under guard because of, for the sake of here six
I am able
i6(arp6o (aor. 66eil,ov)
66vnpt6, -eorg f.
power
td(el"nfvro (aor. i(f1)"ooo)
8uopetoleiprorog -ov 66lpov n.
hard to manage
dleotr
gift
tdncrrv6or
I praise
Enti
when, since
t0v
if
dner66v
6our6v, 6our1v, 6out6
himself, herself, itself
tddor
I allow
6lrer8fl Enewa
6B6opl6owa
sevenly
tyrb
I
id06lco
I wish, want; I am willing
| 2a5l
:
drii + acc. 6ni + gen. rtnminrla
I take out, demolish I drive out it is possible for X (dat.) to Y (infin.)
6rer6i1 dv
when, since, because then, next towards; against; for on
I fall (up)on
I
Z+O 1 Creet<
-
English vocabulary
Greek
dntol6eur n.pl.
provrstons
Bnrrirv -o0oa -6v
following, succeeding
iEnopor ( + dat.) 6p6ro
6pi(ro
(+
rdplopor
dat.)
tdprotdro
:
dq eig do'opot
6on6po f. dterpdlpqv
I follow I shall say (fut. of tLbya) I quarrel with I come, go I ask
Ooupd(ro
I wonder at, admire; I wonder (if, at the fact that ...) god
06ol
summer I run
OflBor f.pl.
Thebes
0qpe6o
I hunt, seek wild beast
0qpiov @qoe6g, -6roq m.
-f
0vqt6g
sti ll
0uydrqp,0uyorp6g f.
dto6, -oug n.
year
0Dp6q m.
eS
well
EUov6pog m.
Evander I keep my oath
e0nec6
easily
einpo(io f.
success
i6t6vor ixov6g -f1 -6v lvo + subjunctive or
eiirc,rcroq -ov
orderly, well-d isci pl ined
'{vo + indicative
dqnv
impf. of rqqlti on condition that (see p. 179) impf. of ryp\
mortal daughter soul, heart; desire aar. stemofr6p&a pres. inftn. o/ rdplopcrr, eipr
optative
sufficient, enough in order that, to where
pI. indicative & imperative o/ ioi6o
lote
2
iocoq
pernaps
I have, hold
roOi(opor
lam
roi roi
roi
Ze$q, Lt6g m.
Zeus
rtrinep troiro
I sit down and; also; even both ... and ... although I burn (tr.)
ii
or; than I enjoy myself; I take pleasure in (+ dat.)
n.
evil
xor66
pleasure
xotd +
6rp'@, 3
i1pflv (also 1pr1v) 'Ex,l tlyo
+
adverb
tii6opor
{Dov( f. f166q
-eio -ri
frl"Oov
iirro
sweet, pleasant aor. of r Epyoltcrr, eipr I have come (impf. firov
.
..
ror6v
-6v rol6g -f1 -6v -r'1
acc.
trorol.opBdvco
:
I had
come)
rrorol,6yro trotop6vro troto
tpeis
WC
Koro1€lporov6ro
f1p6po f.
day I sg. or 3 sg. impf. of teipi (l am) when
roreil"qntor
flv
flviro
2A7
Theseus
-6v
dtt
e0opr6or
|
I am defeated
06poq, -oug n.
itrrpclloror)
English vocabu lary
fltrtiopor
0e6g m.
I shall be (fut. of +eipi: see p. 93) evening; west I had been wounded @lpf. pass. of
-
(+
gen.)
bad, disloyal beautif ul, good; creditable according to; in accordance with I seize, capture I tell, recount I stay behind, remain I flee I vote against by a show of hands 3 sg. pf.pass. of trotol"opBrivro
|
I Z+e I Creet<
-
English vocabulary
tro,t6yo reivog -n -o :
Greek
I check, stop; possess, keep €rceivog
rel"e6co
-r'1
-o
-6v rrv8uve6ot trl,oicu
I order empty I am in danger, run a risk I weep (for)
Kl.6op1o6 m.
Clearchus
rl"riat
I hear ( + gen. of person & acc. of thing) I am strong; I control, defeat; I have power over, rule (+ gen.)
rev6g
-r1
rptrc6
rpdtrorog
-r1
-ov
rptvr,l
trtdopor
best I judge, decide
I obtain, acquire, get; (pf.) | possess Cyrus (king of Lydia) I hlnder, prevent
K0pog m. rrol,6
rl.oppdvcr tl,ov0dvro tl"6yro
ll,eino) Afrrrv, -ovtoq m. l,ip16trro
I am about to, intend to; I hesitate on the one hand ... but on the other hand ... (both second word in clause) I remain
tp6vro
petd + acc. perd + gen. rpeton6pnopar
after with I give a share in X (gen.) I send for, summon
pEtprog -o -ov
moderate
tlrl pq6eig, pr16epio, pq66v
not; in order that ... not, lest
pqv6g m. prlnote prlrrlp, pqtp6g f. pouorr6q -f1 -6v
month
tpetoDi6ropr
no one, nothing
pr1v,
never
mother
pd)v;
musical, harmonious word; story ant surely not?
vedv(dq, -ou m.
young man
1"o1oy6g m.
),0n6opor l.6ro
porctprog
-d,
-ov
pdl"roto pOll.ov tpov06vco
Moporinq, -oD m.
tpdlopor peyol,ogpoo6vl f. p|yaq, pqa)"q, p6y0 pef(cov -ov ip61,er
pfppn6, -nKoq m.
I
verp6g m.
corpse
v6oq -o -ov v[r6
young; new I conquer victory
I am famished crest (of a hill, or of a helmet) captain I grieve, suffer distress I loosen, untie; I break
l,69oq m.
blessed, happy most, especially more; rather I learn, understand Marsyas (a satyr) I fight greatness of spirit, arrogance
great, big greater (comparatiue of ptyor,) X (dat.) is concerned about Y (gen.)
| 2a9l
p6v... 66...
Lacedaimonians, i.e. Spartans I take I escape (the) notice (of) I speak, say leave Leon
English vocabu lary
tp6l.l.ro
p00oq m.
Aore8orp6vrol m.pl.
-
v6pog m.
taw
vo0q m.
mind, sense
v0v
now
v6(, vurr6g f.
night
Eevogdrv, Eevo
:
m.
Xenophon Xerxes, a Persian king
il6vetpt
I am with, live with
6, {, t6 66e, ii6e, t66e
the (definite article) this
'Obuooe6q, -6cog m.
Odysseus
oitQ ot p6v... oi 66 ...
to him, to her (oi is enclitic)
ol
:
some ... others ...
I
ZSO ; Creet<
-
Greek
English vocabulary
iolSo
I know (see p. 95) to home, homewards
oiro6s oir6co
oirov
oiriq
f.
I manage (my) household nouse
oirov6pog m.
householder house, household
oirog m. toTpor, oiopor
Ithink
oipor
alas!
dl,ryoplin f.
oligarchy
dptrro, -crtoq n. tcipvDpr
eye
nopaoreu6(or
-
English vocabulary
I prepare I am present it is possible for X (dat.) to Y (infin.) it is possible for X (dat.J to Y (infin.J
tno'ptyro
I provide all I suffer, undergo
n&9, n0oo, ndv
rn6oyo narfip,notp6q m.
nerpdopor n6pntoq -q -ov
father I try
fifth
tn6pnro
6pol"o16co
r agree
n6nov0o
pf. ofrnaoya
6nl"u n.pl.
arms, weapons
flepbirroq, -oD m.
to where in order that, to; that see to it that
nepi +
Perdiccas, king of Macedonia about, concerning trustworthy
I see straight
nl"o0q m.
+
dat.
6nor 6nrog + subj. or opt. 6nroq + fut. indic. t6pdro 6p069 -r't -6v
6proq m.
-qtog m.
n6vqq,
nrot6q
gen. -r1
fll"droro
-6v f.
n1,o6oro6 -d -ov n60ev;
dpl6opor
oath I dance
6s,i,6
who, which
nor6co
6otrq, iing,6tr 6rt.
who(ever), wh ich(ever), what(ever) when; seeing that
nol.ep6co ( + dat.)
6rt, o0 (oir, o01) oS6eig, oi6epio, o066v
that not (see p.20a)
noi;
nol"6proq -o -ov
nol.fptot m.pl. n6l.epoq m.
-eo4 f.
no, no one, nothing therefore; isn't it? (see p. 211) and so, therefore (second word)
n61,rq,
ear
nope6opcrt
o0o{o f.
property
n6oog -t1 -ov;
otire... oUre...
xott
obtco(q)
neither ... nor ... this thus
noig, no,r66g c.
boy, girl; child; slave
napir nopd
contrary to; alongside of beside, in the presence of, with
o0ro0v o0v oOq,
rit6g
n.
oOtoq, triitrl, to0ro
+
+
acc. dat.
25Il
tndpetpt rndpeott tnapi;yer
I swear like, similar to
Sporog -d -ov
|
noX,6g, nol,}"f1, aoL.r5
oi
noll,oi m.pl.
I send a poor man
Plataea
sailing, voyage rich from where? to where? where ... to? I do, make I make war on hostile
the enemy war
city much (pl. many) (the majority of) the people I travel; I march how much? how great? (pl. how many?) once, at some time, ever (enclitic)
n6repovln6r,ep0 ... ri ...
whether... or...
noO;
where?
np&ypa, -0rog n.
rnpoma
thing; business, negotiation; matter, aftair I do; I get on
rpeoBeid f. np6opuq, -sog m.
deputation old man; ambassador
npiv npo0Dpio f.
before eagerness, enthusiasm
I
ZSZ
1
Creet<
-
English vocabutary
Greek
np60Dpog -ov
np6g
+
ready, willing, eager to, towards
asg.
rnpooel,o6vco
I ride towards I bring near, apply to I pay attention to it is fitting for X (dat.) to Y (infin.) I position at; I order before, earlier I find out
tnpoo6lro
(+ dat.) inpoo6lco tdv vo0v
(+ dat.)
npoorlrer tnpootd,ttor np6repov tnuv0dvopc,r
ndtnore n6q;
ever
Xol,opivtoq -d -ov
from Salamis
Iol"opiq, -ivog f. oiyrio
Salamis I keep quiet silence Scyrus (an island in the Aegean) wise, intelligent, clever your, of you (sg.) treaty, truce stade (see p. 135) dress, robe expedition
how?
r&ll,o
:
Er0pog, -ou f. oo
onov8oi f.pl. ot66rov n.
orol,fl f. o16),o9 m. otpote6co
orpotql6g m.
otpotd
f.
otponcbrqq m.
of oupBoul"eri
ouppol6ro
(
+
dat.)
ouprpopd f.
,
touvdyro
ouvorol"ouO6ro oq0e o1ol,d(or
orotrlpio f.
(
+
dat.)
English vocabulary | 253
rd dl.X.o
td(rq, -e
rank, order
Torpior m.pl. r6Ovqro
Taphians I am dead (pf. o/t0vrlorro) grasshopper
*rr,tl,-iyoq
m.
xi; dq; nq,
why?
ri; (gen. dvog) tr (gen. nv6q)
who? what? a certain, some, someone, something
(enclitic)
ttttprirorco
WOUNd
then (enclitic, drawing inference) well then; further (second word)
TOt
orronrl f.
-
roivuv
rpanovtut: tpcnovtcrt rpeig, rpio
trp6nopor rprflpqq, -ouq f.
three I cause to turn I turn (intr.) trireme
Tpoid
rrpEnro
f.
Troy
tporprl f.
food
turpl"6q -f1 -6v
I happen; I meet bllnd
rruyl6vo
(+
gen.)
I march general army sold ier you (sg.) I give advice, advise I am allied in war with
0Bpi(co
I insult, treat violently
iippr6, -ecog f.
wanton violence, outrage healthy you (pl.) on behalf of
disaster
0otepoia f. (rn) 0otepoiq
I Serve by; out of the next day on the next day
I follow along with them (see p. 148-9) I have spare time
iiore pov
later
safety, deliverance
t
lcollect
Syrrlg -69 Dp€tq
rlnfp +
gen.
rlnqperico
sr6 +
(+
tq6p
trplpi, oil
dat.)
gen.
bring, carry flee, run away from say; I say ... not, deny (see p. 156) love, like
|
-
I ZSa I Creek
qrl"io
Engtish vocabutary
f.
English
friendship
qrl,6ro),og -ov
fond of elegance
gil"oq m.
friend loving distinction I fear I think, worr!; I take thought for
rppovri(o
1+ gen.)
Xo),rt6rrf
f.
lerpd(er lerpcirv, -drvog m.
yeip,ptp6q
f.
always Amazon and
1rrbv, -6vo6 f.
SNOW
dat.
I use, experience
it is necessary for X (acc.) to Y (infin.)
'xprl
Agathon
all
angry,
tSbvopor; oi6g tnp6rrco
t'
eipi
(see
Ooup6(co
l,0orrel,ei + dat. & infin.
+ dat. &infin.; inoporv6ro + dat. tgoB6opor; 666orro
lam-with
appear
apple Arachne
Ayd0rov, -orvog m. nOq, nOotr, rl&v
dei Apo(rirv, -6voq f.
rtri 6pyi(opor + dat. ttpoivopar + infin. pfll"ov n. Ap61vq f.
ypi11,til.r,a,-drcov n.
money
lpDoiov n.
a piece of gold, gold
1p6vog m.
time
yeu8r1q -6q
false
ryrl
I vote
V6Xr,r
I blow; I make cool; I dry out
A)
O (addressing someone)
riipo f.
season
rilq
that; as to (motion towards people, not
bad
teiPi
6to
places) ears (nom. & acc. pl. o/ o0g)
be
beautiful
ro1"6q -f1 -6v
rirgel,6ro
I help
because
6r6c (see p. 172); dnei, 6ner6fl; dte + participle (see p. I37)
6q +
acc.
d6qel"ov
+ infin.
if only!
arrest arrive in, at Artemis ask (a question) Athene Athenians, the Athens Athens, in Athens, to
become before
255 |
p. 93)
oupBoul"e6ro
advise
hand
Cheirisophus
+
act admire advantage, it is of
afraid, I am
Xetpioo
Greek vocabulary |
- Greek
able, I am
Chalcidice it's stormy winter; storm
(poetic gen. 1ep6g)
lpdopror
I English
-
+
dnay ro; ioul"l.trpBdvro
rdgtrv6opor eiq + Apteprg, -i6og f.
4gg.
tdprorriro
A0r1vn f.
A0lvotor m.pl. A0flvor f.pl. A0rlvqor A0f1vo(e
ror6g
-r1
-6v
(= I utl
ryilvopor npiv (see p. 199)
believe (that)
nrote6
betray
rnpoDi6copr
I
ZSO
; fngtisn
-
Greek vocabutary
English
better
dpeivcov -ov
Daedalus
book
BrBl.iov n.; piBl.o6 f. re (enclitic) ... roi...; noiq, nor66g m.
dark daughter dawn, at
both ... and ... ooy brave
dv8peiog -d -ov
bring brother build bury but by (: at the hands of) can (: I am able) caref u lly celebrated challenge
Octvotog m.
&6e),rp6g m.
oiro6op6ro
defeat
virdco
(:
t0dntco
dl,l"d; 56 (second word) 0116
+
gen.
f8rlvtrpar; oi6q r' eipi (see p. 93) dntpeldr6 l"opnp6g -& -6v
tnporol"6opor
cnoose
roip6opor
no?'irqg,-ou m.
city clever
n6l,rq, -erog f. Kl,eondrpo f. oo
come
rnpoo6plopor
come on! come to companion conoemn
iiLye
Cleopatra
lnpoo6plopcrr Etcripoq m. frccrtnyrlvciroro)
condition, on
-
that
conti n ue converse
corrupt
+
gen. Qterson
condemned) & acc. Qtenalty)
dq'6); Be'{rre p. 179) + participle (see
t6torel.6co
16rol"6yo;rot t6to
(:
land)
Xrbpa f.
courage
dv6peid f.
cowardice cowardly
ror[o
Crete Cyprus Cyrus
lead)
f.
Greek vocabula ry |
Ao[6ol,o9 m. oroterv6q -r1 -6v 0uydtr1p, -rp6q f. dpo (tfl) €q
death deceive deed
tq6po; rdlar
citizen
country
roi... roi...
-
i(onotdr,l dpyov n.
+
desire
ipdro
desperate, I am die dispute
dnop6ro
do
+npiltt
doctor
iatp6q m.
enemy escape escape (the) notice (of), ever since
nol"6ptor m.pl.
gen.
1dno0v{oro dycovi(opor
lgsriyco I
rl,ovOdvro
i6 o0; €€ Srou; d
famous father field
d(r61.o1oq -ov
fight
p6lopor
nurilp,norp6g m. dyp6q m.
find
teripiorro
find out first
tnuv0rivopcrr
fly foot forbid forgive former, the friend
npdrrog -q -ov
n6topar nor5q, no66g m. dnoyopefro louyyryvrbcrcar
+
dat.
Breivoq -q -o gil,oq m.
rcor6g -r1 -6v; 6erl"6g -f1 -6v Kprlrq f. Krinpoq f.
friendly frightened, I am
K0poq m.
future, in the
CK eiq
girl
r6pq f.; ncig, not66g
give
tbi6ropr
from
t
+ gen.; dn6 +
gen.
tdv dnetto 1p6vov f.
2Sl I
| 2Sa ; englistr -
Greek vocabulary
English
tdno6i6ropr tdplopor; tBoivro; lrop 6ro tdt6ploprot; *dnerpr (fut. meaning
give back go
go away
in indicative,
see
husband
dv(p, dv8p6g m.
p. 94)
tnpoo6plopor 0e6q c.
if
it6og -o -ov (see pp.193-4) "El,l,r1v, -nvoq m. rbg + participle; 6tr
if ever (indefinite) if only
-
that
iy
yupvdorov n.
hand, on the other
66 (second word) ral"6g -{ -6v
handsome nappen nappy hate
ttuyldv
nave
pio6ol -Ex
near Helen
rdrofar (see p. 'El.6vq f.
help
her Heracles nere
here
(:
'Hporl.flq, -6oug m. to here)
hero
herself him himself his own home, (to) home, at
how (with adjectives & how many
kitl
idnorreivro
ki ng
Boorl.etiq, -604 m.
kiss know
ruv6ro
late
cive
latter, the
o0toq, oiltq, to0to
lead teave
tdyco
like
(:
dn6plopor &n6+ gen. similar to)
n0t6v (acc.) os169 (see p. J46)
make
6l.riq, -i6og f. E)'ni(a
oixto
f.
rbg
ofiooor -(t1 fioq;
-0,
+ participle)
to?6o; iyryvcirorc,r
lover
of himself)
etc. (see pp. 774-5)
dncog, rirg,
intelligent
Eoutrlv or cr0n1v
(:
pp. 169-70 d6rivotog -ov dre; oio; oiov (all ooq6q -t1 -6v
long (= in length) loss, I am at a
oiror
adverbs)
dat.
6&v (with subj.); ei (with opt.) see
ivo,
6v0d6e 6v0d6e, 6eOpo iiproq, iipcooq m.
6ouro0 oiro6e
nope hope nouse
how?
18)
+
ei; 66v
impossible in order to inasmuch as
igul"6rrco
guaro gymnasrum
I ZSSI
6rst6v one66
god, goddess gone, ought to be grounds, on the
Greek vocabula ry
hundred hurry
go ro
Greek
-
love
(:
appoint)
6poro6 -& -ov
dat.
dnop6or
gtl"6ro; 6p6
txoOlotqpt
dvqp, dv6p6q m.; dvOponoq c. (: human being) tyop6or; yop6opor (of the woman)
man marry Medea
Mflbero f.
meet with
1€vtuyl6vco
messenger
dyyel"oq m.
mind, I have in
dv vQ
+
+d1
Miv
Minos
mistake, I make
+
td pflroq
a
idpoprdvco
dat.
I
ZeO
1
fngtistr
-
Greek vocabutary
money more
ypilpara, -dtrov n.pl.
mother
much
English
(:
by far) (with comparatives)
my
nlght none, no one not now(adays) oDey
obviously (doing X), I am
promise prostitute
r6pvq f.
pqrnp, -tp6q f.
pun ish
roX.d(
€p6q -r1 -6v 'o
oi66nore; pr166nore
-
v6og -o -ov
reach read realize
tfi iotepaig
refrain from
v6(, vurct6g f.
rememDer respecr
6polq
o06eiq, o06epio, oi66v; pn8eiq etc. o0, ork, o0X; prt (see pp. 204-6)
v0v tneiOopo,r + dat. t
as possible
responsible (for) rich roao
safe sail same, the
one thing ... another ...
dl"l,o ... dl.).o ...
save say
opinion
yv
say... not
or
ii
other
dl"l,og -r1 -o
see see
that
self
rb6
rrilroto
td
toi66opot
oirtoq -o -ov
tnl,6ro
f
6 a0t6q, oitr1, td o0t6 torb(ro il,6yr,r; t
rpqpr (see p. 156)
t6priro
6nrog (see p. 169) o0t66 -t1 -6
set out
d
ph i losopher
oiitt'1
prace Plato poor man
t6nog m.
she show
since sister
6nei; 6ner6n d8el"rprl f. 6o0l.o9 m.
d(eorr or nopxotr (both + dat. &infin.)
prarse
t€norv6or
prisoner
eipyro; rol"D
6eop
SIAVE
snake
(:
therefore) so X (adj. or adv.) that so (with adjectives & adverbs)
so
Socrates
soldier
gen.
dogtrl.rlq -69
tn6pno
possible, it is
+
nl"o6olog -d -ov 666q f.
send
fll,drrov -o)voq m.
acc.
tdn6lopor + gen. rprpvfloropot usu. + gen.
flqvel"6nrl f. fleprrl,flg, -6ouq m.
n6vqq, -r1toq m.
+
icio0dvopot
Pericles
prevenr prison
ZAtl
pcrot),ero f.
queen
tl
old man
Penelope
I
nol"l,Q
eipt (all + participle) of old
Greek vocabula ry
+6nro1v6opor
pdl"l.ov
quickly, as necessary, it is never nevertheless new next day, on the
-
tDeirvIpt
dtprg, d
rig Xcorpdtqq, -oDg m. otpoocirrlg, -oD m.
| 262 | Engtish -
Greek vocabutary
some ... others ... sorry, I am soul stade stay
English
dl"}.ot ... dl"l"ot ...; oi p6v... oi 66 ... peto,p6l"et + dat. (personwho is sorry) & gen. (cause of sonow)
v[xn
f.
still (of time) still (: nevertheless)
(: prevent, hinder) straight away struggle (: I am in difficulties) student stupid stop
such
surely... not...? surely ...? take care teach tell (= inform) tell (: order, command)
terrible than theatre them
doOevrlq -6q
drr
what (indirect question) what sort of (indirect question)
5tr
eipyo; rorl"Sro dnop6ro po0qrr'1q,
-o0 m.
where ... from?
n60ev; no0;
toroOroq, toroftq, rotoOto
whether ... or ... (indirect questions) whether ... or ... (in conditionals) which (relative pronoun)
6s, ri, 6
&ps pn ... ; ttdv ... ;
dp'ori ...
;
er)l"op6opor
i6r6dorro tdyy6l,l"co + dat. rel"ebco 6erv6q -r1 -6v fl (or use genitive - see p. 16) 06otpov n. oito6g -&6 -d (acc.)
this
o6toq, obtt1, toOro
though thousand thyself to
roinep (+ participle)
trick rry
understand unhappy, I am
until use
6noio6 -o -ov dnei; 6ner6n 6cov (with subj.); 6te (with opt.)
where?
oi tptdrovro
in order to, in order that)
(in indirect question also 6tr)
pdlpoq -o -ov
Thirty, the
(:
ti;
when whenever
tvopi(ro
to
rBo6l,opor; t606l,or
ipeis
e0069
yt)."iot -at -a
+
n6tepov. .ii ... eire... eite...
who?
de;
who (indirect question) who (relative pronoun) wife
6ocg,
iiog,6tt
6s, ri, 6
pvr1, yuvorr6g f.
willing
€rrirv -o0oo -6v
willing, I am
r606l,ro
winter
1ertrrrbv,
wisdom wise
oogio f.
with
Feto.
+ gen.; oriv +
woman word
yuvf1,
yuvorr6g f.
work
€p16(opnr itrtp
wrong, do
-drvoq m.
oo
-6v
l,6yog m.
wound
oeour6v, oeoumlv np6q + acc.; (to people) ,bq
-
to
&6rr6
acc.
1vo,6acog, rir6, etc. (see pp. lZ4-5)
you
noperSopot
young man
o6 (sg.), 6peiq (pl.) venvioq, -oD m.
pr11ovr1 f. nerpclopor
Zeus
Zeriq, A169 m.
tpov0dvro
l,Dr6opor 6ro9; p61pr; p61pr Ipdopor + dat.
oO
I ZASI
tp6vro
wait want weak what?
think
travel
virtuous
WC
6pcoq
Greek vocabula ry
pd)"o dyo06q -r1 -6v; ocixpprov -ov
very
ord,6rov n. (but see p. 135)
tp6vro
-
dat.
lndex of Greek Words Pafticles are not given here. They can be found on pp.
dno6i6opcr 106-7 dnrco 110-11
6ei 100-1 beirvDpr 90-1, 100-1
207-12.
&.pa 762, 1.64
6erv66 42
&pop( 163
66opar 66 6e0po 52 6616opar 110-11 66o 110-11 611?'6ro 73, 78-9
dp'oS 163 dp6oro 110-11
dyo06q 43 dycrvorr6or 140
&pc o0,
dyl6lko 9&-9
dpp6(co 110-11 &pp6ttco 110-11 &pyaiog 42 dp26opor 139
dye (iiyete) 169
dywpr 110-11 tiyor 98-9
A1poo06vr1q 31
6ui 56, 59
6rdd
d6rrog 33 ddro 1lO-11 cl66opar 110-11
doru 30 ci(rivro 110-1L
6r6tiorco 100-1
oi8cbg 31
cl5(to I 10-1 1 air6g 2O, 46,
-6r6p6orcrr 71
olv6co olpEro
98-9 98-9
ctpo 9&9 clo06vopor 98-9
the I37,
I45, 746-7,
214
98-9 drorior 18,98-9, 158 &X,yerv66 43
dl.eigco 110-11 &Ln01e 36,42
&l.ioropal 7L,9a-9 1 10-11 dlT"rittor 11.0-11
d?'?'6ooto
d)"l,{l.oug 47, 15O til"l.opcr 1 10-1 1 d),l,oq 150, 218 &pcprrivro 98-9
dp6va 22O &pgi 56 diiprpo, &pq6tepor 126, 150 iiv 159, 184,185,186,
187,195 dvri 56 dvcyrciog 42
dvdlioro 9&9 &v626opor J.39
&vqp 28 dwi 56 6.ndtg
126
&rlro0g 33 &n6 56,67
6i6opr 38,88-9, 100-1 dircoroq 42
dgrrv6opo.r 9&9 dlOoptrr 140
6$nep 172 6torr 172 8rrirrro 112-13
oioTgp6g 43 olc266vco
162
6rcrel.6o 139
772
paivro 71, 98-9 pril.l.ro 98-9 Bapitg 42 poorl.eriq 30 9|Fatoe 42 pr6ro 71, 9&9 pl.6nror 1lO-11 p?"
66,98-9
po0q 30
ycp6o 100-1 yel,6o 100-1 ydvoq 3l yepalog 42
5o16o1 10G-1
6prio 1i2-13 66vopat 92, 100-l 66o 54 -66to 77,72 8drpov 26
t,&v 159, 184,185, 195 6cuc6v, obr6v 46, 47 6riro 100-1 Eyeipor 100-1 tyro 46 6061.o 100-1 ei 159, 164,166, 184, 185, 195 et... ii... 165
ytpov 28 yiyvopcr 100-1 pyvriroror 71, 100-1
ei16p 169,170
ypc0q 31 ypdqro 110-11 vw\ 29
elpr (=l shall eo) 94,1O2
6drvo 100-1
6x,
6cp0rivro 110-11 -6e 133
Eraoroe 126, 150 Erdtepog 126, 150
e10e 169, 170
eipi (=l am) 93, 100-1 elq 54 eig 56 etre... eite... 165, 184
B( 56, 67
| 266 I Index of €Kfl 32
€reiOev 52 dreivog 49, 51, 726, 744, 145 Ereioe 52 6rrbv 38
lUU_] E),iyyro 112-73 IAOUVO
61"rar 100-1
E)'nig 28
i4avr6v 47 Ep6q 46
Ev 57,67 dv0ri6e 52
evu€vdr 5z
rq€r0qo I 1z-IJ €rtt (=slnce) l/z iner8fl (=since) 172
txi
Index of Greek words | 267
Greek words
57, 67
iiv 184 llproq 31 rlov1oq 42 O&),ama 25
0&nta 7O2-3
0utpil(a 22O
pov0dvro 104-5
0vforco 102-3 0r3co 112-13
p6ycq 35,43 peiyvDpr 1 14-15 pei(rov 36 yt|Lug 42
-i
'irpr 82-3, 102-3
ioOio 102-3
rcairo 102-3
€repoq 51, 150 e0 45 rDoo I 12-15 eilvoug 43 e6piorro 69, 102-3 eilgporv 36, 43
rar6q 43 Ko^t(o
rdpvro 112-13
870p69 43
rarrr 57,67 rsipor 81,92 Kelpo l lz-_tJ rzv6q 42
d1o 102-3
repdvvDpr 112-13
6ro9 31
rep8oivo 112-13 KnpDrTo 1_tz-tJ
(e6yv0pr Zxi:g 29
1
12-13
(ba 712-73
fl
(introducing a question)
762 i (=than) 16 ii riiote 178 ii8opct 66, 102-3,140 f16r1q
37
iirro 94 fp6rspog 46
rLaico(r),6ro) 102-3 rl,6nr
rpwi6 25 xrriopar 102*3 rrs(vo) 102-3 CyX0VO I 14-15 ),ayrhg 27
l,appdvor 69-70,104-5 l.avOdvcrr 104-5, 139
olyv0pr 104-5 oi6o 95,104-5 oipar (oiopar) 66, 1 14-15 oioq 51, 128 6l"iyoq 43 6),l.Dpr 104-5 dpvDpr 104-5
6vivrlpr 114-15 6r60sv 52, 161
6nrog
petclr6l,opor 140 ltiy 2O4-6 introducing a purpose clause 175 introducing a question 163 pn6€iq 54 pqS6tepoq 150 Stilttlp 29 FryvDu[ r.L4-15 pirp6q 43
luz-5
olc(olov) 137
1tflcog 42
p6vo 104-5
xd,6q 43 ral,fnrro 1 12-13
148
o1 52
petd 58,59
p6l.l"ro 104-5
iorlpt 72, 84-7, IO2-3
ot (article)
6nor 52,767 6noioq 51,161 6n6ooq 51, 161 6n6re 52,762,772 6n6tepoq 161 6nou 52, 161
pf),er 104-5
iOr 169 r^€oq J4 'ivu 174 iaog 42
roirep 138
l6.a 74,98-9
prilopar 104-5
144
dq 56
drp'rlre 179
pdl.c 45
-U€V I55 -0qv, -o0qv 65, 68
rc0aiprrl 1 12-13 raoiorqpt, 22O
d
lrciv
06l.erg (06l,ere) 164
€nlor0pol I IZ-lJ €nopar 100-1 dplopar 69, 94,1,02-3 ipordrrl 102*3
eillopcr 1 12-13
),6yor 69, 104*5 l,einrrl 68, 104-5 Xerhg 27 ],r1yro 139 )"6yoq 26
52,762 =in order that 174 after verbs of precaution
IAT_2 introducing commands
769, la2
6ptio 69,95, 104*5 6pyi(o 114-15 6q,
6pyi(opar 66, 140 ii, 6 50, 51, 166, i75,
2ra
lnpvrlorro 104-5 prpvqoropar 66
6ooq 51,128
pDpior 55 FDpror 33 p6v 163
6oag 50, 51, 128, 161,
6csnep
1.75
doro0v 26 dorppcivopar 114-15 6rov 159, 197 6'ce 52, I59, L72
v6po 114-15
6n 154-5
v€o t 14-I5
6n
ve6e 27
(=because) 172 os 52
vopi(o 104-5
o$ 204-6
vo0g 26
or) pf1 206 ob6eig 54 oi66repoq 150 oi3vera 172
(0v ((uv-, \v1t-) 59,22O
o6xoq 49,
fi, 16 24 , 122-6 , 1,27 , 21,8 66e 49, 51, 726,2I8 d(co 114-15 60ev 52 6
,
57,726,744,
r45,2rA oi5ra(9) 52,
rpiv
ftaLa6q 42 napri 58
np6 58,67
nl.q
39,126
I77
69eil.o 104-5 drpl,rorrivo 1 14-15
198, 199
np6g 58
np6repov 198
natsa(D 1O6-7
np6repoc" 44
nudlp 28
np@oq 42 nuvOdvopcr 106-7
fio6op0r 139 na6od6 39 flouoo€iq 40 nu6ro 62*6 n06(ov 38 nei0co 106-7 ner06 31 nipnro 106-7 tr€n0DKd)q 41
tr€poivo 114-15 n6p6opor 114-15
nol"6co 106-7 xtog 52
ndq 52, 162 p{6roq 43
p6o 116-17 pf1'yvopr 106-7
P'\mp 29 pinrro 116-17
nwi 58,67 fleprrl.flg 31 retdwDpr L14*15
op6w0pr 72, 116-17
n6ropor 1 14-15 nflyvopr 1 16-17 niprl.rlpr 106-7 n(pnpqpr 116-17 nivo 106-7
oqpaivco 116-17
-oe 133 oeour6v (oaut6v) 47
oxdrrco 1 16-17 c6g 46 oo969 32,42, 45
xLio 76,1O6-7
ordar 116-17 oneipo 116-17 or6v6o 116-17
il'qanftepog 44
onou8cioq 42
nl{ttro 116-17 xo9|v 52 not 52 noi 52,16I
o16l"l.o 106-7 orivog 42 orp6
xtma
LO6-7
nv6o 116-17 r60ev 52, 161
128
va0g 30 veovidg 25
vDv 224
noio 114-15
otpio(v) 148
no#a 2I8
orp&6, oqdrv,
noioq 51, 161
og6tepog 46
nor6q 51 n6?'rg 30
orir(o 106-7
ro)"r1q 35, 43 n6oog 51, 161 roo6q 51
n6re 52,162 not6,52 n6tepov (n6tepa) ... ii 163, 164, 165 n6rspoq 51,161
odrpo 28 'ca?"d.c,
37
ldtcto 716-17 raAitc" 43, 45
reiva 116-77 'ceLta 176-11
r6pvo 106-7 +Log 2O,793-4,22O
nou 52
rtmuptg 54
noO 52, 161 notg 29 rp&rtro 68, 106*7
{rro
118-19
riOrlpr 80-1, 106-7
tirt<,r 106-7
|
| 268 | Index of 'ciparo 74*5
ripil 25 rivto 1 1&19 rrq
Index |
Greek words
48,51,122,I49,21a
flntolv6opar 10&9 6n6 59 tcrepoq 44
ipcivro 11&19
ris 48,57,161, 218 rrrpdlmal 106-7
qcivopar 140 gaivo 108-9
toiog 51 ror6o6e 51, 145 roro0rog 57,145,171 -169 22O r6oog 51
roo6o6e 51, 145 rooo0rog 5I,745,177
r6re 52 rpeig 54 rp6nro 108-9 rp6po: 108-9 rp61ro 108-9
gei8opor 118-19 96pe 169 96po 108-9 gefyto 10&9 rpqpi 96, 108-9,155-6 g9i,va 72,108-9, 139
10&9 ql)"ta 73,76-7
32
pi),og 42
rpiBor 11&19
rprflpqg 31
tuyyivo 108-9, 139 ui6g 30 6p6repoq 46 6n6p 59
goB'6opar 66, 10&9 ppri(
1upie4 40,43 16o 118-19
comparison 16 of adjectives 42-4 of adverbs 45
Xpfiopar 74 1pf1 108-9,190
conditional sentences
1al.en6g rp6po 140
'condemn'15-16
lptiooOq 33 Xbp.t 25
183-9, 195-6 in indirect statement 188-9 open 184-5
ye66ro 118-19
unfulfilled and remote
Iplo r6-1y .r.
accents 3,
5,70, I21,2I8,
zzz-o accusative see under cases accusative absolute
747-2,
1.91
adjectives 32-44 Attic declension 34 comparatives 36,42-4 firsvsecond declension
32-5
negatives 204-6 double 206
'say not' 156 sequence of tenses and
and uses of New Testament Greek
declension
774 expressing result 177-8
mixed firsVthrrd declension
37-47
Attic dialect vi, 3, 59 augment 63,67
'bv'20
Attic declension 27, 34
p(
205-6
229-37
fearing 180-1 final clauses 174-6 genitive see under cases genitive absolute 140-1 gerund 124 gerundive 1.93-4,22O
'because' 172-3 breathings
oi
nominative see under cases
K
onnmic anrict 2i
Q
3,4
cases 10-22
42,22O Herodotus' dialect 228-9 hindering 201-3 heavy syllables
first declension 25 second declension 26 Attic declension 27 third declensron 28*31 numerals 53-5
participles 136-43 aorist 39, 40 perfect 41 present 38 particles 207-12 place 132-4 potential clauses 219 precaution 181-2
historic present 218
nronncifinnc
131, 132, 735,74r-2 dative 19-21, 131, 133 genitive 15-18, 131, 132, 135,140-1
Homeric dialect 227-8
preventing 201-3
nominative 11, 12 vocative 12-13,25,26,
indefinite clauses 185,
commands 168 indirect 170-1
moods 152-3 historic sequence 153 primary sequence 152 seconoary sequence
r52-3
nouns 25-31
accusative 11, 13-14,
29,31,35,36
124-9
cases
1 1
170
77-2, 136-7,2t9
725-6, r44
indirect 164-7
deliberative subjunctive 164,
dative see under
expressing purpose 136,
dual 22,232-3
generic 123 indefinite 122
direct 161-4
result clauses 177-9
rircre 777-8
predicative position
deliberative 164
miscellaneous points 218-20 moveable v 3-4
ri5
274
questions
macron 2
=how 52 -+^ RO
lcip
attributive position 125
protasis 183 punctuation 5 purpose clauses 174-6
adverbs 52 pronouns 51 crasis 4
=because, since 172
165 denying 201-3
definite 24, 722-6, 738,
andrbq 154-5
partici ple construction I 57*8 subordinate clauses in I 59-60 iota subscript 1, 3
rbq
indirect statement 154-5 dionep 138
apodosis 183 aspect 61 article
I 55-6
6t
reflexive 47, 148-9 relative 50, 166,214 pronunciation of Greek 1-8
reduplication 63, 67 relative clauses 123, 127-30,72, 175 attraction of the relative
J
terms (pp. 234*4O) are not gtven nere.
nitive construction
literary terms 234-40 locative 133 long vowels 2, 220
rpu)"drro 1 18-19 rpbo 72, 108-9
third declension 36 two-termination 33, 34, 36 adverbs 45 alphabet, Greek 1-3 aorist 39, 40, 61, 68, 69-70,
i
consecutive clauses 177-9 contraction, rules of 73 correlatives
Index in the
nf
ta}x 52, I44 cn06or 1 18-19 rilv6opcr 108-9
false friends 214-17
The words defined
i
light syllables 42, 220
185-8
exhortations 769, IA2
Glossary of grammatical terms (PP. vii-xvi) and Some Iiterary
indirect statement 15/t-60
26el
66-a
short vowels 220
space 13rt-5 renses
aorist 61 2nd aorist 69-70 onnmin anrist 2l I root aorists 71-2 future 219 frrfrrro norfon+ Al
historic present 218 imperfect 60 harfo^+
^rcciva
AR
pluperfect 61
time 131-2 time clauses 797
2OO
prohibitions 168-9 lonic dialect 228-9 rmpersonal verbs 190-2
195-6 indirect commands 170-1 indirect questions 164-7
pronouns 46-50, 144-51
deictic 49, 144-5 indefinite 48, 149 interrogative 48 personal 46, 147 possessive 46 recip(ocal 47
verbal adjectrves 20, 793-4,
220 verbal nouns 124
verbs 60-119; see also under tenses
accents 70,226 agreement of persons 219
I zzo; tno.* aspect
6l
indicative
assimilation 22O ' '' augnent 63,67-€. compound
59,'6/
consonant sterns 68
contracted
73-9,214
deponent voice
60,97
6l
irregular 93-119 middle voice 60, 66, 97 optative 61. principal parts 97-119 reduplication, 63, 67,.€ .
subjunctive 61 vocative see under cases
wishes 169'70 'with' 5& 59; 138 words easily confused
214-17
rsBN 978-0-1 9-860456-3
9 " il||ill|tttlilttl]t[[iltl "7801 98"604563' 810.99
nnp
$26.95 cm
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