RESEARCH WRITING AND FORMATTING: A SEMINAR MODULE * DR. CECILIA LIWANAG – CALUB Professor, TSU College of Education Education E-Mail Address:
[email protected]
LEARNING OUTCOMES: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Enhance skills in paraphrasing, paraphrasing, summarizing, and writing in-text-citations; List down references references following the APA APA style; Write a publishable, properly formatted, formatted, error-free research paper; paper; and Exhibit an improved globally competitive competitive research capability.
I. LECTURE – DISCUSSION INTRODUCTION Conducting scientific research is only the beginning of the scholarship of discovery. In order for the results of research to be accessible to other professionals professionals and have a potential effect on the greater greater community, community, it must be written and published. Most Most scientific research data data are published in peer ‐reviewed journals, which are those that utilize a process by which an author's peers, or experts in the content area, evaluate the manuscript. Following this review the manuscript is recommended for publication, revision or rejection. It is the rigor of this review process that makes scientific journals the primary source of new information information that that impacts decision‐making and practice. The very process of writing can be a helpful tool for promoting the process of scientific thinking, thinking, and effective writing skills allow professionals to participate in broader academic and scientific conversations. Peer review manuscript publication systems requiring these technical writing skills can be developed and improved with practice. A. COMMON PARTS OF A PUBLISHABLE RESEARCH PAPER 1. Title Page 2. Abstract 3. Introduction 4. Methods and Materials 5. Results and Discussion (with Tables and Figures) 6. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 7. References 8. Acknowledgments Acknowledgments B. THE TITLE PAGE The title page should contain contain the title of the the manuscript, manuscript, authors’ names names and their their affiliations (which also include the the corresponding author’s author’s contact information) information) C. HOW TO WRITE THE RESEARCH TITLE 1. Principles to Remember
Condenses the paper’s content in a few words; Contains the main concept, concept, focus, key words, or key variables; Highlights the research problem under under investigation; May suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis; Reveals how the paper will be organized; and Differentiates Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same subject area.
2. Tips in Writing the Research Research Title 1. Avoid including phrases such as, "A Study Study on.. An Investigation Investigation on ...," or "A Review of of the...." They are unnecessary and obvious. 2. Write research titles that may may contain 10 –15 –15 substantive substantive words that accurately accurately highlight the core content of the paper. 3. You may use catchy specific descriptive words words or a subtitle subtitle appropriate appropriate to your your concern. Poor: Effects of Drug A on Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Patients: Study of a Multicenter Mixed Group 1|Page
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Better: Psychosocial Effects of Drug A on Schizophrenia Patients: Patients: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial Poor: Benefits of Meditation for the Nursing Profession: A Quantitative Investigation Better: Nurses on the Move: A Quantitative Report on How Meditation Can Improve Nurse Performance Do not compose compose a very long long neither neither very short title. Short Short title usually usually suggests research topic which is broad and does not tell the reader reader what is specifically being being studied. Compose title with style but with preciseness. Ex. Pride, Prejudice, and Ambivalence: Toward a Unified Theory of Race and Ethnicity Avoid acronyms, acronyms, abbreviations, abbreviations, and jargon known known only to specialized or or local community. Use correct correct grammar grammar and capitalization, not only in the major title but also in the subtitle Create an interesting interesting title that that is either in the form of a question or a phrase. phrase. Examples: FEEDBACK ON CONTENT VERSUS FORM: WHICH MATTERS MOST? ARE SHORTER SHORTER ARTICLE ARTICLE TITLES MORE MORE ATTRACTIVE ATTRACTIVE FOR CITATIONS? A CROSS-SECTIONAL CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY OF SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS
3. Writing the Sub-Title a.
b.
c.
d.
Explains or provides additional context a. Ex. "Linguistic Ethnography Ethnography and Welfare Institutions as Social Practices: The Case of Residential Child Care Paradoxical Institutions" [Palomares, Manuel Manuel and David Poveda. Text & Talk: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Language, Language, Discourse and Communication Communication Studies 30 (January 2010): 193-212] Qualifies the geographic scope of the research a. Ex. "The Geopolitics of the Eastern Border of the European Union: The Case of Romania-MoldovaUkraine" [Marcu, Silvia. Geopolitics 14 (August 2009): 409-432] Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular individual a. Ex. "A Deliberative Conception of Politics: How Francesco Saverio Saverio Merlino Related Anarchy and Democracy" [ La Torre, Massimo. Sociologia del Diritto 28 (January 2001): 75 - 98] Identifies the methodology used a. Ex. "Student Activism of the 1960s Revisited: A Multivariate Analysis Research Note" [Aron, William S. Social Forces 52 (March 1974): 408-414]
4. Major Issues and Priority Research Areas as Basis for Research Titles/Topics A. SOCIAL SCIENCES 1. Families And Communities Transition Labor migration Changing family structure, Evolution of social institutions in response to changes in family and community structures 2. Disaster Social antecedents of disaster Determinants Determinants of vulnerability to disaster Social response to disaster mitigation and adaptation Relief and developmental responses to disaster Consequences Consequences on individuals’ and communities’ well-being well-being in disaster-stricken and and vulnerable areas areas 3. Peace Process and Conflict Resolutions 4. ICT and Social Change changes in social institutions (educ., (educ., governance, governance, religious sects, sects, financial/agricultural financial/agricultural institutions) institutions) Analysis of changes Adoption and and utilization of ICT in individuals, individuals, organizations organizations and communities communities virtual communities communities and interactions interactions Analysis of virtual 5. Education Factors shaping educational processes processes and policies at individual, institutional, community, community, and national levels Social processes and dimensions of educational management and reforms Technology and education Graduate tracer studies Academic, behavioral, behavioral, physical/health-relate physical/health-related, d, environment-related environment-related problems problems on institutional institutional level level School operational management issues Community – Community – related related factors influencing i nfluencing school processes, policy, and operation
B. NATURAL SCIENCES 1. Climate Change Physical oceanography oceanography Marine coastal geology Engineering geology Volcanology, hydrology, seismology Vulnerability of biodiversity 2|Page
2. Pollution Persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, mariculture -derived pollution Vulnerability of biodiversity Instrumentation(detection, Instrumentation(detection, analysis, robotics, atmospheric, environmental) environmental) Electronics application, catalysts, environmental environmental remediation Nanotechnology 3. Conservation Systems biology Genetics Biodiversity 3-domain scheme (morphoanatomy, physiology, behavior) Atmospheric/environmenta Atmospheric/environmentall instrumentation instrumentation 4. Energy Molecular simulation/modeling simulation/modeling Materials science (alternative energy, electronics application, environmental remediation) Natural products (biofuels) Materials research (energy, fuel cells, ICT/microelectronics, nanomaterials, nanomaterials, functional materials) Greener technologies for minerals, coal Geothermal, petroleum 5. Health Bioassays, diagnostics, drug/cure discovery Biosensors Natural products (pharmaceuticals, (pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals, nutraceuticals, pesticides) Instrumentation Instrumentation (detection, analysis, robotics, medical physics) Innovative cure Development Development of vaccines and indigenous kits using indigenous materials 6. Food Natural products Biochemistry, Biotechnology Biotechnology Molecular biology Exploration of new resources and more efficient food production Sources: Sources: National Higher Education Research Agenda -2 (NHERA 20019 – 20019 – 2018) 2018) CHED 2009 file: // E:/ RESEARCH% 20PRIORITY% 20AREAS.pdf CMO No. 41,s. 2010 CMO No. 42, s. 2010 D. WRITING THE ABSTRACT 1. How Important is the Abstract Abstract The only part of the paper that is published in conference proceedings. proceedings. The only part of the paper that a potential referee sees when he is invited by an editor to review a manuscript. The only part of the paper that readers see when they search through electronic databases. The abstract sets the tone for the rest of the paper Most readers look at only the titles of the contained papers. If a title interests them, they glance through the abstract of that paper . 2. Content of an Abstract Usually in one paragraph of 250 words or less, which sequence: The overall objective objective and research research problem(s) problem(s) investigated; investigated; The basic design; Major findings; and Conclusion and a few important recommendations. 3. Tips in Writing the Abstract a. Always use the the past tense. tense. b. Your abstract must be consistent with what you reported in the paper c. Correct spelling, clarity of sentences/phrases, sentences/phrases, and proper reporting of quantities (scientific units, numerical figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are anywhere else. d. Center the title ABSTRACT. e. Do not indent the first line. f. Include 5-10 important key words. 3|Page
g.
If your abstract is to be published in a journal and you want people to be able to find it easily online, try to use 510 important words or phrases
Most journals provide clear instructions to authors on the formatting and contents of different parts of the manuscript. These instructions often include details on what the sections of an abstract should contain. Authors should tailor their abstracts to the specific requirements of the journal to which they plan to submit their manuscript.
Sample Abstract LISTENING COMPREHENSION PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY SAUDI STUDENTS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM The present study investigated investiga ted the listening listeni ng problems encountered by a group of first year English major students of Qassim University. Sixty students who took took the listening course in 2012-2013 2012-2013 were selected selected for the study. Data was gathered by means of questionnaires and interviews. The results of the study showed that accent, pronunciation, speed of speech, insufficient vocabulary, different accent of speakers, lack of concentration, anxiety, and bad quality of recording were the major listening comprehension problems encountered by EFL E FL Saudi learners. Understanding students’ learning difficulties may enable EFL teachers to help students develop effective learning strategies and ultimately improve their English listening abilities. abilities. Suggestions were given to address address problems regarding regarding how teachers teachers can help their students students overcome listening comprehension problems. The results of this study may be useful for those who are interested to look into the listening problems of their students learning English as a second language. Keywords: Keywords: listening, listening comprehension, comprehension, listening problems problems , English language classroom, accent, pronunciation, pronunciation, speed of speech, text length Source: Hamouda, A. (2013). “An investigation of listening comprehension comprehension problems encountered by Saudi students students in in the EL listening classroom.” International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, Development, Vol. 2, No. 2. E. WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM OR OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. A problem statement is: statement is: a. A condition to be improved upon b. A troubling question question that exists exists in scholarly scholarly literature, in theory, theory, or within existing practice that points points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation c. An explanation explanation of the issues issues prevalent in a particular sector sector which drives the researcher researcher to take interest interest in that sector for in-depth study and analysis, so as to understand and solve them (Saunders (Saunders et al. 2009). 2.
Principles in Writing the Sub-Problem Should be a completely researchable researchable unit Should constitute a logical sub-area of the larger research undertaking Should have have solutions to the sub-problems sub-problems leading to to the resolution of the main problem Based on a topic of interest interest or controversy, controversy, or that is significant significant to the the researcher How to Construct a Researchable Topic
a. b. c. d. e.
Broad topic: topic: Medical marijuana Narrower topic: topic: Medicinal benefits of marijuana Research problem/question: problem/question: What are the medicinal benefits of marijuana? Keywords: Marijuana, medicinal benefits Thesis statement: statement: Marijuana has multiple benefits when used for medicinal purposes including pain relief, relief from nausea caused by chemotherapy, chemotherapy, and relief from pressure caused by glaucoma
Pointers to Remember: Remember:
A general problem problem usually contains contains two to six sub-problems sub-problems which usually cannot be solved with with easy answers answers like “Yes” or “No.” A sub-problem is stated in the the form of a question. The 5 W's can be used to spark the discussion about the problem.
Types of Research Problems
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1. 2.
3. 4.
Descriptive What kind of praise do teachers frequently use when teaching? Relative /Correlational To what what extent extent is the result result of the entrance test related to the achievement test of the students in the college? What is the relationship between between child drug addiction and the socio-economic status of the family? Causal (Non-Comparative) (Non-Comparative) What is the influence influence of peer bullying bullying on the the students’ students’ social behavior in the school? school? Causal (Comparative) How effective effective is a delayed praise on the students’ students’ performance performance in comparison with immediate immediate praise?
4. Writing the Objectives of the Study a.
b.
The General Objective States what the researcher expects to achieve in general terms Can be broken into small logically connected connected parts to form specific objectives. Should be met by accomplishing accomplishing all the specific objectives. The Specific Objectives Systematically address various aspects of the problem as defined under the ‘Statement of the Should specify what the researcher researcher will do in the study, and where, and for what purpose. Objectives are usually headed headed by by infinitive to plus action verbs verbs Observe correct parallelism in writing the objectives. See example below:
Problem’ .
F. WRITING THE HYPOTHESIS 1. Hypothesis a. Scientific presupposition presupposition that is drawn from from a theory and and tests parts of that theory empirically. b. A presupposition presupposition that is validated or invalidated tend tend to compare compare and verify verify variables:
a. b. c.
Key Concepts: Based on the research problem problem that must be formulated as declarative sentence. Must express clearly and explicitly a relationship of at least two variables. Hypotheses tend to compare and verify variables through appropriate appropriate terms: Differences (mo Differences (more re often, often, better, more (or (or less) effective , different), different), Relationships (positive, Relationships (positive, negative relationship, correlation) Consequences (the Consequences (the more – more – the the less, if – if – then then
Examples: Problem: How effective is a teaching style on student’s performance in English subjects ? 1. Causal-Correlational Causal-Correlational Research Problem: H1: Elementary school students have better performance in English subject which is taught by a teacher with the nondirective teaching style than in a subject taught by a teacher with the directive style. style. H2: Non-directive teaching style have greater significant significant positive positive effect on the elementary school students students than the directive teaching style 2. Differences H1: Schoolchildren Schoolchildren in the second grade grade like language games games more than the schoolchildren schoolchildren in the fifth grade. 3. Relationships H1: There is a positive positive relationship between a children’s intelligence intelligence and the the education education of their parents. 4. Consequences: H1: The more the teacher praises the students, the more the students learn. H1: The more cohesive the group is, the bigger is its influence on individual individual members’ interaction.. interaction.. G. WRITING THE INTRODUCTION Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Start the section with a general background of the topic. Contextualize, Contextualize, that is, in context, point point out specific issues that are being being addressed in the present present work. Write a few significant, relevant literature review. Conceptualize by pointing the gap and gap and state the information gap in the available literature associated with the topic. State clearly clearly the rationale/purposes/objectives rationale/purposes/objectives and/or hypothese hypothesess of the study Resolve to address the problem by problem by concluding with the potential outcomes/results outcomes/results to the field of study Must not be too long, not too short. Introductions should not exceed two pages. Make sure that there there is a one-to-one correspondence correspondence between between the articles articles cited in the intro and the articles articles listed in the reference section.
“ APA APA recommends that that you use the most most up-to-date research you can find on your topic. topic. However, the meaning of up-to-date will vary depending on the field. Some fields develop faster than others, and even within a field, some information will remain relevant for a long time, whereas other information will become outdated. For example, foundational works may be quite old but still worth citing when you are establishing the context for your own work. There is no year-related cutoff cutoff where sources must be published published within the past 5 years or longer to be used in a paper. Each source must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to determine whether the information in it is timely and relevant. Source: Source: Lee, C. (April 2, 2015). “The Myth of the Off -Limits Source.” Retrieved at APA Style Blog http:// blog. H. WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 1. 2.
Refer to the statement of the problem. Observe a one-to-one correspondence between the statement of the problem and the significance of the study. Write from general to specific contribution. Start off broadly then taper off gradually to a specific group or person. ( See sample below)
I. WRITING THE MATERIALS AND METHODS 1. a. b. c. d. e.
f. g. h. i.
Materials Give a general idea of the material and the purpose for which it is intended. Each major part or characteristic of the material is described in a logical sequence. Describe the materials used in the study, explain how the materials were prepared for the study, describe the research protocol. Observe proper language, language, mechanics, conventions conventions in writing. In scientific writing, do not capitalize the names of chemicals (e.g., sodium chloride instead of Sodium Chloride or Sodium chloride). When writing formulae, formulae, be careful always to use the appropriate subscripts subscripts and superscripts ( subscript - a number, character character or symbol positioned positioned next to and a little belo below w another character; character; superscript - positioned next to and above another character) for example: C44H62O6SSi2 not C44H62O6SSi2. Do not use colloquial terms to avoid misinterpretation, misin terpretation, e.g., wrote ‘hot’ when you meant ‘radioactive’. When you are trying to to describe actions, actions, use the specific word, e.g., e.g., using the word ‘spin’ when when you actually mean ‘centrifuge’. Use correct English. Learn about the conventions of notation in your field. For example, example, human gene names should be written in italicized capital letters (CTBP2, VCP) VCP) whereas mouse gene names names should be written in italicized letters, with only the first letter capitalized (Ctbp2, Vcp).
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j.
k. l. m.
n. o.
When writing species names of organisms, convention dictates that these are written in italics, with a capitalized genus name and a species name that begins with a small letter; for example, Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Rattus rattus. After the first mention, you can abbreviate these to, e.g., H. Sapiens, M. musculus, R. rattus. Always use internationally internationally standardized standardized units units of measurement, measurement, with with the correct abbreviation. abbreviation. Be consistent about spacing between numbers and units, e.g., “The relation between the absolute units is as follows: follows: 1in = 2.54cm = 25.4mm = 72pt = 6pc.” Local terms must be italicized and and translated into into English (or footnoted). footnoted). Ex. chicharong chicharong baboy baboy (pork crackling) , mansanitas/aratiles (Muntingia calabura L. scientific name); apple cherry or Kerson fruit), saresa (Panama berries) State exactly which piece of equipment equipment you used, because because this may also affect your results - give the name, model number, and manufacturer. Make use of figures and tables, they are the most efficient way to convey bulky detailed information.
2. Methods a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Report and describe the methodology completely and concisely. Be specific. Report how procedures were done. If well - documented procedures were used, report the procedure by name, perhaps with reference. Use 3rd person. Use the passive voice. Use the past tense and the third person to describe what what you did. Do NOT use fragments. Use complete sentences
J. WRITING THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1.
a. a.
b.
c.
Results Present your findings in text and illustrate them, them, if necessary, with self-contained figures and tables. They speed up the comprehension and interpretation of the study’s findings. Text, Tables and Figures Texts are written in sentences and paragraphs. Not all analyses or results warrant a Table or Figure. Some simple results are best stated in a single sentence, with data summarized parenthetically. parenthetically. See if you can present your results clearly in a sentence or two. If so, a table or figure is probably unnecessary. If your data are too numerous or complicated to be described adequately adequately in this amount of space, figures and tables can be effective ways of conveying lots of information without cluttering up your text. Tables Numerical values or text displayed in orderly columns and rows. Useful when you need to present a quantity of numerical data in an accessible format and you need to show exact numbers. Do not write “the table above” or “the table below.” Italicize the table title. Do not italicize the table number. Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of all headings. Standard abbreviations and symbols, such as % or no. may be used in headings. Ensure each column has a heading. Notes are placed below the table. If the table is from another source, include a note below the table specifying whether it is from another source or adapted from another source. e.g. “Note. From….” OR “Note. Adapted from…” OR “Note. The data in column 1 are from…” Numbers. Numbers. Number all tables with Arabic numerals sequentially. Do not use suffix letters (e.g. Table 3a, 3b, 3c); instead, combine the related tables. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables, identify them with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g. Table A1, Table B2). Titles. Titles. Like the title of the paper itself, each table must have a clear and concise title. When appropriate, you may use the title to explain an abbreviation abbreviation parenthetically. Headings. Headings. Keep headings clear and brief. The heading should not be much wider than the widest entry in the column. All columns must have headings, even the sub- column. Body. Body. In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals should be expressed to a consistent number number of decimal places that is determined by the precision of measurement. Never change the unit of measurement or the number of decimal places in the same column. Figures refer Figures refer to graphs, flow charts, maps, drawings, photos, photos, etc. Line graphs are graphs are effective effectiv e at showing trends (how data changes over time) and relationships (how two variables interact).
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Bar charts/graphs are charts/graphs are good when you want to compare discrete items. The bars can be vertical or horizontal. Making them different colors can help the reader to differentiate each result. Pie charts show charts show the proportion of the whole that is taken by various parts. Drawings and diagrams can diagrams can be used to reinforce or supplement textual information, information, or where something is more clearly shown in diagrammatic diagrammatic form. Photographs can be useful as illustrations that help to explain what is being discussed in the text. Number figures figures in the order they are first mentioned in text. Do not write “the figure above” or “the figure below.” Figures should be large enough to read easily (between 8 point and 14 - point font ) The preferred typeface in figures is 12-pt Courier. Ensure data are plotted accurately and the grid scale is proportioned. proportioned. Place labels close to the iidentified dentified item. Axis labels on graphs graphs should be parallel to their axes. Captions include the figure title and and a brief, but descriptive, explanation explanation of the figure and placed below the figure. The figure legend should be positioned within the borders of the figure.
2.
Discussion
a.
Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth. If your results differ from your expectations, explain why that may have happened. If your results agree, then describe the theory/ previous findings that the evidence supported. Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive." For generally accepted facts and and principles use present tense.
b. c.
J. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1.
Summary of Findings
The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or statistical measures woven. The findings are the answers to the problems problems presented in the previous section of the paper. paper. No deductions, nor inference, nor interpretation should be made otherwise it will only be duplicated in the conclusion. Use past tense to present the result of findings of the investigation. investigation.
2.
Conclusions
3.
Conclusions are Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, general statements, statements, and/or generalizations generalizations based upon the findings. Conclusions should Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the problem Recommendations Recommendations are Recommendations are steps offered to solve or improve the negative findings of the study. They suggest actions to be taken in response to the findings of a report. They seek to propose solutions. Put recommendations recommendations in a numbered numbered or bulleted list format. If action is imperative, list them in order of priority so that decision makers know which items need attention first. Write one-sentence recommendations, starting with actionable verbs and using concise language. A word of caution caution about about writing recommendatio recommendations: ns: You should should always consider consider your relationship relationship with the the reader first. If you have no authority to make recommendations, recommendations, the reader may be hostile to their presence.
K. WRITING THE ACKNOWLEDGMENT IN A REFEREED JOURNAL a. b. c. d.
There is no standard format for writing acknowledgements. acknowledgements. Give credit to funding bodies, departments departments and individuals who have been of help during the project. Include a brief note indicating gratitude to those who have been of help. Generally, acknowledgements contain the following elements: Full name of all individuals who are being thanked. statement as to what what kind of of help the writer writer has received from each individual, individual, group of people, A brief statement scholarship, etc.
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e.
In some disciplines, ethical clearance or some other kind of permission is needed, and it is often stated in the acknowledgements that such permission has been granted.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was was made possible through the support support [Name of Foundation, Grant Grant maker, Donor]. We thank our colleagues from [Name of the supporting institution] who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/conclusions interpretations/conclusions of this paper. We thank [Name Surname, title] for assistance with [particular technique, methodology], and [Name Surname, position, institution name] for comments that greatly improved the manuscript. We express our gratitude gratitude to the (Name (Name Surname, title, title, institution) for sharing sharing their wisdom wisdom with us during the course of this research. We are also immensely grateful to (List names and positions) for their comments on the preliminary draft of the manuscript, although although any errors are our own and should not tarnish the reputations of these esteemed persons. L. GENERAL STYLE IN WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER 1.
2.
3.
To make a paper readable: Print or type using a 12 - point standard font, such as Times, Arial, Calibri, Cambria, Courier Courier New, etc. Be consistent. Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper with 1 - inch margins Number pages consecutively/sequentially. consecutively/sequentially. Adhere to recommended recommended page limits. limits. Mistakes to avoid: Placing a heading/sub-heading/table title at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page. Dividing a table or figure - confine each figure/table figure/table to a single page. Submitting a paper with pages out of order. In all sections of your paper: Stay focused on the research topic of the paper. Use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the abstract). Indent the first line l ine of each paragraph. paragraph. Present your points in logical order. Use present tense to report well accepted facts , e.g., e .g., “The grass is green.” Use past tense to describe specific specific results , e.g., 'When weed killer was applied, the the grass turned brown‘. Avoid informal wording. Don't Don't address the the reader directly, directly, and don't don't use jargon, slang terms, or superlatives. Insert page numbers in the upper right corner. Do not mix tenses whenever necessary. Ex. Two guys rob a liquor store downtown. The robbery occurred at at midnight last night. Objectivity is absolutely essential.
4.
Common Terms Used in Research
a.
Limitations vs. Limitations vs. Delimitations Limitations include Limitations include factors the experimenter cannot control, while delimitations are delimitations are boundaries the experimenter intentionally sets. Both affect methodology methodology and research data. With limitations an experimenter considers time constraints, nature of the experiment, instruments utilized and the sample itself. Limitations are potential weaknesses weaknesses in your study and are out of your control.
b.
Participants vs. Participants vs. Respondents vs. Respondents vs. Subjects Participants, respondents respondents and subjects are the people who the researchers select for their study . Participants are Participants are usually in qualitative research (e.g. interviews). Participants participate Participants participate and answer questions in qualitative studies (e.g., interviews and focus groups). Because Because qualitative studies are more in-depth than quantitative, the participant in qualitative studies contributes more (is more active) than respondents to a survey or subjects in an experiment. The participant generally participant generally gives much more detailed answers than a respondent would in a survey. Respondents answer Respondents answer (respond to) questionnaires - usually quantitative. Respondents answer Respondents answer (respond/reply to) questionnaires - usually quantitative research, no more, no less.
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c.
Subjects are Subjects are usually in experimental/scientific research (quantitative). (quantitative). Subjects is Subjects is a term used more in science. Subjects is Subjects is generally a more passive term (Example: Ten subjects subjects were given the behavior therapy.) therapy.) A subject may either be animal or human. Instrument vs. Instrument vs. Instrumentation Instrument is Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). The instrument is instrument is the device and instrumentation instrumentation is the course of action (the process of developing, testing, and using the device).
d.
Adopted vs. Adapted Adopting an instrument is taking the instrument instrument nearly nearly verbatim. It links your study study to all other other research studies that have used the same same instrument. The reliability and validity research studies studies that have been conducted on that instrument can be applied to your study, so you do not have to collect validity evidence. Adopting also saves you time time and energy energy in making making significant changes. When an instrument is adopted, adopted, it is important to appropriately describe the instrument instrument . Who developed the instrument Who validated the instrument Other studies that have used the instrument Adapting an instrument means the instrument has been significantly changed so the reliability and validity evidence will not apply to your study. The researcher follows the general general design of another instrument instrument but adds items, removes items, and/or substantially substantially changes the content of each item. Adapting an instrument is similar to developing a new instrument. When adapting an adapting an instrument, the researche researcherr should report the same information as when adopting the instrument, but should also include what changes were made to the instrument and why. Whenever possible, it is best for an instrument to be adopted. adopted. When this is not possible, the next best option is to adapt an instruments available, then the last option is to develop adapt an instrument. If there are no other instruments an instrument. Whether adopting or adopting or adapting an adapting an instrument, it is always courteous to email the authors of the instrument to ask permission. Simply state your institutional affiliation, the purpose of your study, and ask if it would be acceptable for you to use their instrument in your study.
M. WRITING REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
Bibliography is Bibliography is listing all the materials that have been consulted while writing an essay or a book. References, References, on the other hand, are those that have been referenced in your article or book. text. References are those those that are directly included included in your Bibliography may Bibliography may not directly be included in the text. actual text. Both bibliography and bibliography and references are references are arranged alphabetically. But a Reference List can also be arranged in numeric style with superscript The Modern Language Association (MLA) style (MLA) style is the leading style of documentation for literary research, as well as academic papers in the humanities humanities field. MLA is often called name-and-work name-and-work style. Unlike the APA style, the present tense of verbs is most commonly used in the MLA style. The American Psychological Association (APA) style (APA) style is, originally, a set of rules r ules that authors use when submitting papers for publications publications in the journals of the APA. APA is often called name-and-date style. APA Format is widely used in psychology, business, education, engineering engineering and the social sciences. Writing a Reference List in the APA Style a. References start on a new page. Center the word REFERENCES. b. Arrange your list alphabetically according to surname. surname. c. Use & before the last author if there are 2 to 7 authors d. When authors number 8 or more, include the first 6, then insert three ellipses, and add the last author. Example: Krishnan, K. J., Reeve, A. K., Samuels, D. C., Chinnery, P. F., Blackwood, J. K., Taylor, R. W., . . . Turnbull, D. M. e. Use italics for: Titles of journals and volumes Book titles a. Use indent on the second and subsequent lines in a reference.
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N. ALL ABOUT ABOUT PLAGIARISM 1.
Plagiarism is Plagiarism is defined as the act of either intentionally OR unintentionally unintentionally submitting work or a part of a work that was written by someone else. else. If you turn in a paper that was written by someone else, or if you turn in a paper in which you have copied material from any source without citing that source, you are guilty of plagiarizing. Source: Source: Harvard Guide to Using Sources: A Publication of the Harvard College Writing Program. (Feb. 2016). Retrieved from http:// isites.harvard.edu/ isites.harvard.edu/ icb/ icb.do? keyword= k70847& tabgroupid= icb.tabgroup 106849)
2.
How to Avoid Plagiarism
a. b.
Cite sources to give credit to other scholars for their ideas. Use MLA or APA style in citing sources . Paraphrase, summarize or quote correctly.
c.
How to Paraphrase: Use different vocabulary with the same meaning. Original Text: It can be difficult difficult to choose choose a suitable place place to study English."
Paraphrased: It is often a challenge to pick up a relevant school to learn English. or or It is sometimes sometimes hard to select select an appropriate place to learn English. English. . Change the order of words. words. Original Text: If they have some help, most people can paraphrase effectively. However, practice is important because important because paraphrasing is difficult. difficult.
Paraphrased: Most people can paraphrase effectively, if they have some help. However, paraphrasing is difficult, so practice is important important . Change parts of speech. Original Text: The most effective way to build your English skill is to study regularly .
Paraphrased: The most effective way of building your English skill is to do studying on a regular basis. . Change the voice of the verb. Original Text: To improve English, you should learn new vocabulary on a daily basis. (Active basis. (Active Voice) Paraphrased: To improve English, new vocabulary should be learned on a daily basis. (Passive basis. (Passive Voice) How to Quote for Short Quotations: a.
b.
If you are directly quoting from a work, include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses. If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.
Samples:
According to Palladino Palladino and Wade (2010), (2010), “a flexible mind mind is a healthy healthy mind” (p. 147). 147). In 2010, Palladino and Wade noted that “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147). In fact, “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (Palladino & Wade, 2010, p. 147). According to Palladino Palladino and Wade’s (2010, (2010, p. 147) longitudinal longitudinal study study “A flexible mind mind is a healthy healthy mind,”. Palladino and Wade’s (2010) results indicate that “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).
How to Quote for Long Quotations:
Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation punctuation mark.
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Sample: Most beginners beginners had a very challenging challenging time doing their research research work particularly when when paraphrasing, paraphrasing, summarizing or or quoting materials materials that they they read. In relation relation to this, Jones' (1998) study revealed that:: that:: Students often had difficulty difficulty using APA style, especially when citing sources of data. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their their teacher teacher for for help. (p. 199). *NOTE: A lecture lecture delivered by Dr. Cecilia Cecilia L. Calub Calub (Professor, TSU – College of Education) on January 24 – 25, 208 at the t he Research, Extension, and Development Building, Lucinda Campus, Tarlac State University during the Seminar on Research Writing and Formatting. BIBLIOGRAPHY American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington: Author. Balch T. How to Compose a Title for Your Research Paper. http://augmentedtrader. com/2012/02/07/how-to-compose-atitlefor-your-research-paper/ titlefor-your-research-paper/ [Last accessed on Sept 26, 2015] Bem DJ. Writing the empirical journal article. In MP Zanna& JM Darley (Eds.), The Complete Academic: A Practical Guide for the Beginning Social Scientist (pp. 171-201). New York: Random House, 1987 . Fathalla M and Fathalla M. A Practical Guide for Health Researchers. [Accessed: July 20, 2011] Available from: http://www.emro.who.int/dsaf/dsa237.pdf. Gerard Piel, "Science and the next fifty years", § "Applied vs basic science", Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, 1954 Jan;10(1):17 –20. –20. Hamouda, A. (2013). “An investigation of listening comprehension problems encountered by Saudi students in the EL listening classroom.” International Journal of Academic Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, Vol. 2, No. 2 Holtom, Daniel and Elizabeth Fisher 1999 Enjoy writing your science thesis or dissertation! London: Imperial Press. University of Southern California. 2017. Organizing your social sciences research paper: choosing a title. Retrieved at http:// libguides. usc. edu/ writingguide/title writingguide/title Regoniel, Patrick A. (February 9, 2015). “Two Tips on How to Write the Significance of the Study.”In simplyeducate.me. simplyeducate.me. Retrieved from http://simplyeducate http://simplyeducate me/ 2015/ 02/ 09/ two-tips-on-how-to-write-the-significance two-tips-on-how-to-write-the-significance-of-the-study/ -of-the-study/ Weissberg Weissber g R. and Buker S. 1990 Writing up research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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INTRODUCTION Conducting scientific research is only the beginning of the scholarship of discovery. In order for the results of research to be accessible to other professionals and have a potential effect on the greater community, it must be written and published. Most scientific research data are published in peer ‐reviewed journals, which are those that utilize a process by which an author's peers, or experts in the content area, evaluate the manuscript. Following this review the manuscript is recommended for publication, revision or rejection. It is the rigor of this review process that makes scientific journals the primary source of new information that impacts decision‐making and practice. The very process of writing can be a helpful tool for promoting the process of scientific thinking, and effective writing skills allow professionals to participate in broader academic and scientific conversations. Peer review manuscript publication systems requiring these technical writing skills can be developed and improved with practice.
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