Lesson 3: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
Lesson Outcomes At the end of each lesson, you are expected to demonstrate understanding on how to: A. Distinguish between and among patterns of development in writing across disciplines: 1. Narration 2. Description 3. Definition 4. Exemplification/classification 5. Comparison and contrast 6. Cause and effect 7. Problem– solution 8. Persuasion B. Write 250-word sentence using patterns of development in writing across disciplines.
1. NARRATION Narration tells a story to make a point. It can be used in an anecdotal, abbreviated way to introduce or illustrate a complicated subject or in an extended way to provide a detailed, personal account of “what happened.” An effective narration has a plot. A plot is a meaningful and dramatic sequence of actions that may or may not follow the order in which the events actually occurred. It usually focuses on some tension or conflict within the writer, between the writer and 1
others, or between the writer and the environment. To narrate means to tell a story. The writer chooses the most significant event to form the basis of the narrative. Ethical narratives avoid making inaccurate implications about the cause and effect. Sentence structure and length are varied to make the paragraph flow smoothly and to avoid monotony. Additional details make the story clearer and more interesting. All details are relevant and they fit together in a way that addresses the purpose.
Characteristics of Narrative Paragraph 1. Vivid Description of Details A good narrative presents a vivid description of details. Description must be appealing to the five senses of the human body such as sense of sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch. To make the readers understand narrative, bring them to the world of the story by letting them feel how it is like to be in the world of the characters. 2. Consistent Point of View Consistency of point of view is one good quality of a narrative. A good narrative must present consistency in point view to help the readers easily understand the story. The three most commonly used point of views are the first, second, and third point of views. Generally speaking, one would know that the third person point of view is being used in a story when the pronouns, he, she, it, him, her, they, her, its, and them consistently appear in the narration. The third person point of view is generally used to convey the narrator as an omniscient and dispassionate observer. The narration presents a relatively objective story to the reader, one without much bias and opinion. The narrator tells the story as it happens, with no commentary and partiality. 3. Consistent Verb Tense Verb tense is a feature of every narrative. It helps the reader to easily understand the flow of events. Thus, it is essential to clarify to the reader whether the story in the 2
narrative had already happened, has been happening for some time now, happens on a regular basis, is currently happening, and will do so definitely, or will happen sometime in the future. 4. Well defined Point or Significance A writer chooses a story that he or she would weave into a narrative. It should have the vivid details of the story. The writer should also observed the consistency point of view when narrating, as well as tenses of verbs. A well-defined point or significance is the literary element we called theme. The theme is a unifying thought or idea born out of all other elements of the story. It is a universal human truth that is not usually blatantly said in a story; rather unraveled as the reader reads. Narrative Devices Narrative devices are techniques utilized by writers to add flavor and enrich the meaning of their stories. With the help of these devices, an author can shorten, lengthen, and/or focus on a particular event in the story. 1. Anecdote Anecdote is brief story that is written from the writer’s imagination. It can be used in various ways, such as an introduction to an essay, as an example to describe a point, or as a closing statement that caps things off nicely in an essay or as moments the writer would like the reader remember the short story. 2. Flashback A flashback is an event that happened in the past. As the word itself defined, one is “flashing back” or quickly looking at something that had already happened. It is not necessarily the focus of a story; rather, more of an addition to explain or to elaborate a point made by the writer in the narrative. 3. Time Stretch A time stretch is a single event in the story that the author focuses writing about. 3
There is no a narration of events only, but also dialogue. A time stretch is a single event in the story in which the focuses in writing. It has no narration and dialogue. 4. Time Summary In contrast to a time stretch in which a single event is extended, a time summary is characterized by putting together multiple events and/or shortening a relatively long period of time. Time summaries can be determined with expressions such as “In a single day…”, “Overnight…”, “After the winter season…”, “A few years after…,” etc. 5. Flash forward Contrary to flashback, a flash forward is an event that has to happen in the story. It is “flashing forward” or quickly looking at something that will happen in the future. But, like a flashback, a flash forward is included in a narrative to add meaning to the story. 6. Dialogue A narrative does not only have a narrator who tells a story in accordance to how he or she observes a sequence of events. Writers also include dialogues, a word or a series of words enclosed in a pair of quotation marks, which signal the characters’ spoken language. Aside from the narrator, who tells a story according to the observed sequence of events, the writer also includes dialogue in narration. A dialogue is a word or a series of words enclosed in a pair of quotation marks. The quotation marks tell that these words are the characters’ spoken language or direct speech. Words that Show Sequence Since narrative writing describes events that happen sequentially, writers use sequence words to indicate to the reader in what order the events occurred. For example, if one write a paragraph describing a trip to the beach, he or she might begin by saying, “First, we packed the car with towels, sunscreen, and a picnic lunch.” The following sentence might begin with transitional words or phrases such as next, or second or after 4
that.
Writers use two main types of transitional sequence words. The first type is ordinal transitions. Ordinal transitions are words such as first, second, third, and so. It may also be firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on. The second type of transition is time sequence words. These are words such as then, afterwards, next, subsequently, previously, yesterday, later and soon. Any word that indicates when an event took place is a time sequence word. Processes in Writing a Narrative Paragraph 1. 2. 3. 4.
Identify the purpose of the narrative Note the significant events that must be included. Choose additional details as needed to make the story flow smoothly. Maintain coherence and ensure that all details are relevant, and that they fit together in a way that addresses your purpose.
Example for Narration Last January, I watched my ten-year-old grandson act like an adult in an emergency. While cleaning the living room carpet, I tripped and fell over the vacuum cleaner hose. At first, I maws dazed. Soon I realized that my left arm hurt terribly. I called to my grandson, Lawrence, who was the only other person at home. When Lawrence saw me on floor, his face went pale. Then he calmly took charge of the situation. He went to the phone and dialed for emergency help. I heard him give our address, exact details of what had happened, and a description of the position I was lying in. I could tell that he was carefully listening to the instructions he was given. Returning to the living room, Lawrence covered me with a wool blanket and told me that an ambulance was on its way. He sat by my side in the ambulance and stayed with me while the doctor treated me. My sprained arm bothered me for only three weeks, but I will always feel proud of what my grandson did on that day.
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Task 1 Directions: Each numbered item below describes a situation in which a narrative paragraph is required. Based on the situation and the paragraph’s purpose, identify three main events that will form the basis of the paragraph. Since the descriptions are incomplete, you must create the main events to finish each story. 1. You are a high school chemistry teacher. Today in class, one of your students was extremely disruptive. After a several warnings, you gave the student a detention. You thought the punishment was necessary because the student behaved badly and because unruly behavior in the chemistry lab can result in an unsafe situation. The school requires that teachers write an explanation of the behavior that lead to the detention. Paragraph’s purpose First event
____________ ____________________________________
Second event
______
Third event
2. As a costumer claims representative at an automobile insurance agency, your job includes talking with customers who have been involved in collision. Based on each conversation, you must submit a report that will be evaluated to determine who was at fault. You have just finished speaking with Mr. Warren Mendoza, who was stopped at a red light when another car hit him behind Paragraph’s purpose First event
____________ ______
Second event Third event
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3. You work for the local police department. One of your responsibilities is to respond to resident’s call, investigate the reported problems, and document what was done to address the problems. Today you received a call from a woman who reported that her purse was lost or stolen. She was in the park with her children and left her purse on a bench while she ran to help a child who had fallen. When she returned to the bench several minutes later, her purse was gone. After asking the woman several follow-up questions to get the details of her story straight, you file a report about the missing purse. Paragraph’s purpose First event
______ __________________
Second event
____________
Third event
Task 2 Choose from different narrative experiences below. Write 10 sentences about the chosen experience. 1. Think of a real experience you have had that would be hard to forget. Think about what makes it unforgettable. Narrate what happened. 2. Think about your best holiday celebration ever. Write an essay telling about this celebration and why it was your favorite. 3. Think about how you spend Saturdays during the school year. Pick out a particularly memorable Saturday, and explain exactly what you did that day and why it was especially memorable. 4. Remember the best school assembly ever. Write an essay telling what happened, how the audience responded, and why the assembly was important.
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5. Write a letter to an old classmate about an event in elementary school that was the most memorable to you. 6. A flying saucer has been sighted over your town. You have never believed in flying saucers, but then you see it for yourself. Write a science fiction story telling what happen next. Does the saucer land? Do you meet the crew? How do you communicate? What do they look like? Are they friendly? Puzzled? Shy? Suspicious? What about sounds? Sights? Smells? Make your story as interesting as you can for your reader. Create characters and describe the setting. Make your plot move along to a climax and a satisfying conclusion. 7. Pretend you were selected to receive a special award. Write the article that would be in the newspaper to announce your award. 8. Have you ever been stranded in a place you didn't want to be? Maybe your parents forgot to pick you up after a ball game, and you were left stranded long after everyone else had gone home. Narrate your story about any of these. 9. You won a school contest that allowed you to be teacher-for-a-day. Write about your experience as teacher-for-a-day. 10. At an awards assembly, you were surprised to hear your name called for a certain award. Afterward, when your teacher asked you to write in your journal, you decide to write about this experience. Task 3 Directions: Choose one writing activity that pertains to your discipline. Use your new skills to write a 250 words sentence narrative paragraph on the subject. Use a separate sheet for this activity. Attach this writing assignment to validate your grade. Communication and the Arts You are a promoter of a musical band. As part of your responsibilities, you advertise the band’s tours by sending press releases to media outlets in the cities the 8
band visits. To interest your readers, you give personal information about the band, including how the group met, how their music has evolved, why they have become so popular with fans, and how they work together. Write a paragraph about the band’s history or tell a story about the band that will be interesting to potential audiences. Base your writing on any band that you find enjoyable, making whatever details you need to write the paragraph. Nursing and Allied Medical Courses As a family doctor, you have emphasized preventive health care. You talk to your patients about the benefits of a balanced diet, pure water, regular sleep, and plenty of exercise. Over the years, you have determined that your patients have become healthier, both as a group and individually. One way to illustrate the importance of these habits is to tell stories about patients who have improved their overall health by changing their lifestyles. Write a paragraph telling the story of someone you know or have heard about who have improved his or her health by making a lifestyle change. For example, you may choose a person who has lost a great deal of weight or someone who has begun an exercise in some other form of exercise.
Criminology, Public Administration, Psychology and Social Work As a director of a public shelter for homeless families, you send a lot of time trying to increase funding for the many organizations that provide assistance to individuals and families in transition. You find that personal stories are more effective than statistics in helping people understand the reality of homelessness. Write a paragraph telling one family’s story about how they lost their apartment and ended up at the shelter. Make up any details that you believe will add to your story. For additional information seek information about Human, Personal, and Public Service. Business Administration, HRM and Tourism
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You work for a small coffee roaster that specializes a coffee from family farms. Because you know that many coffee drinkers are interested in the source of their coffee, on each package of beans that you sell, you include a story about one of the families. Write the story of one coffee-growing family, describing how the tradition has been passed on through the generations. To help you with this topic, access the website to for supplemental information on business and marketing. Engineering, Computer Science and Technology Many scientific discoveries and inventions are made by accident. One such lucky accident was the creation of nylon, which occurred when several chemist were working in a laboratory with a sample of polyester. While trying to see how far they could stretch the polyester, they found that they had created a new and much stronger material. Read about the background story of nylon in any general references such as encyclopedia and the like. You may access also the website about science and technology related to nylon discovery. Then, write a paragraph telling how nylon was created. Environmental Science, Biology, Education, and Agriculture You work for a nonprofit organization that raises awareness about species in your region. You are currently working on a project to protect and restore the eagle population. To alert people to problems these animals face, you tell them about how the situation has changed over the past two centuries. Write a brief paragraph describing changes in the eagle population and the dangers eagles face today. Access any website of Environment and Natural Resources for additional information.
2. DESCRIPTION Description presents a verbal portrait of a person, place, or thing. In the context of 10
writing, description means choosing words and phrases that make your reader experience sights, sounds, and smell as realistically possible. You can think of this technique as drawing a picture with words. Description appeals to the reader’s senses. Good descriptive writing makes the reader see (or feel, smell, or hear) what the writer is describing. Guidelines in Writing Descriptive Paragraph 1. Using Simple and Direct Words When writing descriptive paragraphs, at times, students like you are tempted of using long, fancy, or uncommon words. There is nothing wrong with these, as long as these words are suited and appropriate to the paragraph. However, your words should flow so easily and smoothly that the reader notices what you are saying, not how you are saying. When this happens, it is better to use simple and direct words in your narratives. 2. Eliminating Unnecessary Words A good writing is concise. While long sentences or long words may be necessary occasionally, every word should have a purpose. Otherwise, the point you are making may get lost. One way to cut down on extra words is to eliminate redundant expression or sentences that restate an idea you have already covered. For example, each and every are redundant expression because each and every mean the same thing. Choose one and eliminate the other. 3. Using Your Own Words Expressions or descriptions repeated too often become meaningless. Have you heard someone say, “I slept like a baby” or “It’s raining cats and dogs”? These clichés are fine in casual conversation, but they should be avoided in writing. They are so overused that they no longer create vivid mental pictures. For more powerful writing, describe things in your own words. Find only the right adjective or adverb or make comparisons that enable the reader to picture your subject in a perspective. Or just keep it simple- sometimes “I slept well” or “It’s raining hard!” is fine. 11
4. Being Specific In a casual conversation, you may use some of the same descriptive words over and over- words such as nice, cool, and nasty. Your friends know what you mean, but with readers, you need to write more specifically to get your point across. Using specific nouns and verbs make your writing more vivid and cuts down on extra words that can distract the reader and can confuse the reader’s understanding.
Example of Descriptive Paragraph Observe the following examples. Determine the characteristic of a descriptive writing shown in two examples.
Once you drive our new sport wagon, you will wonder how you ever got along without it. The spacious rear compartment has plenty of rooms for all your weekend gear, and the roof rack provides extra storage for bikes and skis. Optional four-wheel drive gives you power in tough conditions, but the handling is smooth that you’ll feel as though you’re driving on air. Finally, the compact size means slick maneuverability and gas mileage that rivals a midsize sedan. This car is custom made for the practical adventurer.
An incredibly compact size and light weight mean you can take it anywhere at any time for any purpose. At the same time, the high power and large memory capacity give you the versatility of a larger unit. High-resolution video and audio capabilities make this a state-of-the art model. From video editing to desktop publishing to gaming, this computer meets the needs of professionals, students, and personal users alike. The Centrum XE laptop is the ideal personal computer for anyone who needs high performance on the go.
Task 1. Using Simple and Direct Words 12
Directions: For each of the sentences below, write a description that illustrates the same subject with simpler and more direct language. Use a dictionary to look up the meanings of words you do not understand. Feel free to rearrange the order of the sentence or break it up into two parts if that helps. The first example has been completed for you. Example: The incandescent, resplendent sun issued from the horizon and thus commenced another torrid day. Answer: The bright sun appeared on the horizon, promising another scorching day. 1. A tall, statuesque, willowy woman entered the room suddenly and unexpectedly, startling all of the guests. ________________________________________________________________________ 2. Dessert was a toothsome confection bedecked with a corona of luscious carmine berries. ________________________________________________________________________ 3. The oversized pickup is a burly, stalwart 2.3 tons of steel constructed to endure a multitude of years and plethora of weather conditions. ________________________________________________________________________ 4. The day was nascent, and my plans were inchoate, so I loitered idly at the breakfast table as I cogitated on the upcoming day. _______________________________________________________________________ 5. Beneath the sparkling lunar orb, the sea glistened brilliantly and the adamantine rocks appeared radiant in the moonlight. _____________________________________________________________________ ___ Task 2 Using Your Own Directions: For each of the following overused expressions, or clichés, think of a more original- or a simpler and more straightforward way of expressing what you want to say. Write your own description on the lines below each example. 1. He’s so cheerful he’s like a breath of fresh air. 13
________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. I’m so hungry I could eat an elephant. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. These two sisters are as different as night and day. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Bernard talks like a mile a minute. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 5. My nephew is growling like a beanstalk. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
Task 3 Directions: Read the following texts. Answer the questions that follow.
This Crazy Feeling Called Love by Grace Cruz
What is love? Funny, I cannot understand why someone would suddenly change behavior just because of this thing called l-o-v-e. I would often laugh at the recollection of my friends’ attitudes towards love. Why do they hide whenever they see their crushes coming, and after which, take secret glances at their directions? And imagine their creativity in throwing clandestine looks at the guys of their dreams! They would peer through an open magazine newspaper, or whatever book that they could lay their hands on-to the point that sometimes they do not even 14
notice that they are holding the page upside down. Or sometimes, they would pretend to powder their nose only to see the image reflected in the mirror that they holding. Ah, you never know how creative girls can be. And why do they seem to lose their senses if the guys do not reciprocate their felling? Or worse, why do they feel like it is the end of the world when they experience little nonsense quarrels or anything of the sort. Me? I will never, never allow myself to be fooled by this crazy felling. I know how to handle myself. I have my head above my heart, and that is where it should be. I do not want to be an object or ridicule by other teenagers like me. At least, I am sensible. I am not be fooled easily by any guy around. But… not until the day changed it colors- so I found. It was the first day of the second semester. I was taking a light snack at the canteen, before my second period for the day. A neat-looking guy in black rimmed eyeglasses broke my train of thoughts and asks if he could have the seat across mine. Sure, I though, and gave him a nod. It was a casual question on a typical day at the canteen, but it made me throw a second quick glance at his direction, and I caught him looking at me. Our eyes met, and he smiled. My, what cute dimples he has! Perhaps I blushed, and lowered my eyes. I tried to concentrate on what I was sipping, played with the straw until the ice melted. I feel like melting too. I heard him ask about the time. “The time…Uh, it’s nine thirty.” I was surprised that my voice almost did not come out. I pinched my arms secretly. Behave, I told myself. He was just asking about the time. ‘’Thanks,’’ he said again and quickly finished his sandwich. Then, he stood up and with a slight bow; I understood that he meant to end our brief encounter. I tried to compose myself after that. They are you, I thought, that was nothing. It was just an encounter-a meaningless casual encounter, I told my brain. After this, I knew that we would not meet again anymore. Or if we do, we would not even remember having met this morning. I was left half-smiling, half-staring at the chair where he sat till my classmate Aida broke my trance, “It is already time. Shall we go now?’’ ‘’Ah, yes,’’ I said. “Sure!” I followed Aida as she led the way outside the canteen. Suddenly I felt moving in very slight steps. I looked around and saw the warm color of surrounding. 15
We reached our room, and seated while wait for our professor. We recognized old friends and exchanged Hi’s and Hello’s. We also greeted new acquaintances with broad smiles and high fives. When it was almost the start of the class, a guy entered the room. My heart stopped beating for a second. He was the guy at the canteen! He glances around and asked, “Philosophy 102?”He was trying to check if he was at the right room. He looked for a vacant seat, and he saw a chair-that unoccupied seat beside me. His notebook fell when he sat, and it landed just right beside my foot. “I am sorry.” he apologized. I smiled and did not say a word, but inside, my heart was saying, it is all right even if all of your notebooks would fall again and again. I surely wouldn’t mind. For the whole period, I kept my face at the other direction, but once in a while I would side glance to look at him through the corner of my eyes. He wore his uniform neatly, I thought. And hmmm, he seemed studios-his full attention was focused on our professor. That night, he was in my dreams. When I woke up, I hurriedly prepared to go to school. Suddenly, school was the most exciting place to go to. I reached school quite early, so I passed by the canteen, just like the previous day. And saw him again. My heart thumped faster, maybe as fast as his paced steps. How would I greet him? Should I say, “Hello, you come early too?’’ or “What is your class today?’’ But while I was trying to compose the words that I would say, I saw him greeting another girl, and they seemed to know each other very well. I could not hear what they were saying, but they seemed to be cracking jokes. They were laughing heartily, and they seemed to be very happy. I felt a slight pinch in my heart. I couldn’t understand. I tried to ignore the pain, and told myself, she was just a classmate, a friend. But when I looked again at their direction, I saw them holding hands and they seemed to be very comfortable with each other’s company. The way they looked at each other’s eyes portrayed a mutual felling that had been there long before, even before I met him yesterday in this very same place. The light feeling that brought I to cloud nine yesterday crashed like the blowing torrents of Typhoon Yolanda. It whipped me, and it slashed me-and I felt my heart pounding. I took a deep breath, and then tried to compose myself. I touched my head; it was still in place-my head with its long wavy hair that was pulled up in bun. My head is still right above my heart where it should be. I should not let this felling let me down in any way. 16
I stood up and quickly walked my way past them. I did not even bother to look. I did not care at all. I was too young yet to fall in love. A. Processing Questions 1. What does the selection talk about? 2. What is the author’s perception of love? 3. Do you agree with the author’s ideas? Why? 4. At what point do you agree with the author’s view about love? 5. Give your own perception of love. What it is for you?
B. Take note of the author's styles of using beautiful expressions. Read the parts of her narration that are described on the following page. 1. How did the author describe her friends who had been in loved during her young age? 2. How did the author describe the uneasiness of having a crush that her friend had experience for the first time? 3. How did euphoric feeling of love change her moods and emotions after that? 4. How did the author describe the pain of smitten love? 5. How did the author rationalize her experience in the end?
Task 4 Directions: Choose a writing project which is appropriate to your discipline, your new skills in writing description on the subject. Write a 250 word-sentence paragraph. Communication and Arts Pretend that you are a feature story writer of a local newspaper, you write weekly profiles of interesting people in the community. This week, you have interviewed Serapio “Amang” Policarpio, an 80 year old retired cabinetmaker who has lived in this town his entire life. Besides keeping up his famous woodworking, Mang Serapio has been actively involved in the community, leading efforts to clean up a nearby river and serving for several years on the town council.
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You want your readers to see Serapio as you see him, so they can appreciate what a fascinating character he is. To create the details you need, write a paragraph that introduces Serapio: how he looks, how he sounds, and what his personality is like and other details you think are important. Remember to include a topic sentence that tells the reader who Serapio is. Nursing and Allied Medical Courses You are a nurse practitioner specializing in obstetrics. One of your patients has just become pregnant for the first time at the age of 39. She is nervous about the possible complications of a late-life pregnancy. To give her to be calm and to show her assurance, you write out a brief description of the signs of a normal pregnancy during the first trimester. In this way your patient will know what to expect and whether her experience are normal. Write a paragraph describing how a pregnancy looks and Criminology, Public Administration, Psychology, and Social Work feels during the first trimester. For information to help your descriptive writing, go to a nearby internet shop and access any website about Health and Medicine. Organize your thoughts and use clear strong details in your descriptive paragraph. As a group psychologist specializing in work-related situations, you have been hired to conduct a stress-relief workshop with the employees of a large company. In one session, you will ask the participants to close their eyes and picture themselves in a beautiful and peaceful setting that you describe. Write the paragraph you will use with the participants. Include descriptions that appeal to at least three senses. Business Administration, Accountancy, HRM and Marketing Imagine that you have just opened a native restaurant in your neighborhood. In the press release that you will send to the local papers to announce your store’s opening, you want to include a paragraph that describes the food in detailed. Your descriptions should be sharp and should engage the reader’s senses. Use words that will enable readers to visualize the taste and appearance of the food. Try to provoke their sense of smell and 18
taste using the terms that describe texture, spices, and preparation techniques. ____________________________________________________________________ _ 3. DEFINITION Definition gives a necessary explanation of a word or concept. The explanation may be a simple substitution of a familiar for an unfamiliar word. For example, you substitute cancer for carcinoma. It may be a single sentence; “In the theater, a prompter is a person who provides cues for the actors or singers on stage.” Or a definition may consist of one or more paragraphs, or even a whole essay, in which you explain your subject, such as tradition or excellence, in some depth. Qualities of a Good Definition 1. Accuracy The definition should state exactly what the term means. It should not contain misleading phrases and should have no error. 2. Clarity The definition should be clear enough for the intended audience to understand. If you are defining a technical term, for instance, you should use common words, not another technical term. Clarity helps the reader to absorb that the definition states. 3. Vividness Whenever possible, the definition should be vivid, with strong descriptive details that help the reader remember the term’s meaning.
Using Definition in Writing for your Discipline
Career Path
Sample Career
Use For Definition
Example Of Definition
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Communication and Video Technician
Explaining a special The term wipe refers
the Arts
effect
to a transition in which a new image gradually moves across the original image, “wiping” it
Nursing and Allied Nursing Aid
Writing an
off the screen. An electrocardiogram
Medical Courses
information sheet for
(ECG)
patients
heart’s
graphs
the
electrical
action Ways in Defining Words or Concepts 1. Analysis Analysis is the process of breaking down a concept into its basic parts. It also entails detailing which one, rather than zooming out and describing the concept as a whole, zooms in and focuses on describing the aspects that make up a concept. Example: The guitar is a musical instrument that produces sound primarily through strumming its strings. Its sound is modified or manipulated through the interaction of the strings with the other parts of the guitar, which are the headstock or simply the head, the tuners, the nut, the neck, the sound hole, the body, and the bridge. 2. Collocation Collocation means that there are words or expressions that are usually almost immediately associated with the concept you are trying to define. These words or expression are usually located together, as the term “collocation” suggests. Example: Passion is usually collocated with the terms “love” and “lust.” While these three words are not only compared but also contrasted in the sample text above, they are most often defined in terms of each other because they share a common semantic feature of “intense liking.” 20
3. Comparison Comparison is associating the word or expression you are trying to define with something else not necessarily synonymous with it. It is highly dependent on imagery which creates a vivid picture of a concept in the reader’s mind. Comparison is usually used through analogy or figurative language like similes and metaphors. It is used to make abstract concepts more understandable by using comparison to appeal to the human senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Example: “Groping for imagery I find myself thinking of… passion as hot, strong, almost thick coffee… Coffee unleashes energy, has a full-bloodied flavor, a touch of bitterness unpleasant to others, but delicious to the drinker.” 4. Contrast Contrasting refers to understanding how at least two similar concepts are different from each other. In the sample essay of Apassionato, Gonzalez mentions that “passion” and “love” are usually collocated because they mean almost the same thing. Below “passion” and “love” have been contrasted metaphorically to lessen the ambiguity between the two terms. Example: “Love is softness; passion is smolder. Love might be contentment, but passion is adventure. It must be free, untethered. It must explore, drive beyond the boundaries, and break molds. Passion discovers, unearths, examines, magnifies, and revels in details. Love rolls up details into a coherent whole. Love is passive; passion hyperactive. Where love is melancholic, passion is pain.
5. Etymology Etymology is the derivation or history of a word. It explains the evolution of a word or how it has come to be. Example: 21
“Appassionato is the past participle of a Latin word that means ‘to impassion… If passion is so good, then why do many fear it? Because by its etymology (from the Latin word ‘passus,’ past participle of ‘pati’ meaning to suffer) it brings pain. To be capable of passion one must be open, vulnerable and brave enough to stare pain in the eye.”
6. Exemplification and Illustration Exemplification is defining something by giving examples. Illustration, on the other hand, is giving an example and focusing on it to elaborate on the concept you are trying to define. Example: Books are considered to be credible and reputable resource materials to consult when you are trying to find the definition of a word. Some examples are dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedias, and manuals.
7. Extended Definition Extended definition is a personal interpretation of an author to an abstract and multifaceted concept. It goes beyond denotation and connotation. It gives the reader a new and fresh understanding of a concept as it largely draws upon the author’s own perspective of the world. Example: “I believe that a life lived with passion shimmers, shines, rises above the ordinary. Allow me to seduce you into passionate existence. To think, to sing, maybe even to sigh- appassionato.”
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8. Function Another way of understanding what a word or concept means is to know its purpose. It answers the question: What is it used for? Example: Whether it may be an ancient sundial, a classy pocket watch, a Rolex or Swatch wrist watch, an antique grandfather’s clock, or the mighty Big Ben of London, a clock, first and foremost, is a mechanical device or technology whose primary purpose is to measure time.
9. Negation Negation is a technique that you can use to define a word or concept by explaining what it is not. Example: “Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth.” -1 Corinthians 13:4-6
10. Synonyms Synonyms are a single word or phrase that share almost the same meaning with the concept you are trying to define. Example: According to Dictionary.com, “mawkish” means “characterized by sickly sentimentality” or “weakly emotional.” It can be considered synonymous to “nauseating” and “sickening” due to dependence on too much emotion. 23
________________________________________________________________________ Task 1 Directions: For each of the following items, use the category-detail method to write one or two sentences that provide a useful and accurate definition. A sample is provided for you. The general category does not need to be the first word in your definition (in the sample below, the category is “mammal”), but it should come early, before most of the details.
Example: horse – A horse is a plant-eating mammal with four legs, hooves and a long tail domesticated long ago by humans the horse serves as a draft animal and as a means of transportation. 1. Carabao ____________________________________________________________________ 2. Merengue _____________________________________________________________________ 3. Fork (as in knife, fork, and spoon) _____________________________________________________________________ 4. Skyscraper _____________________________________________________________________ 5. Cellular phone or mobile phone _____________________________________________________________________
Task 2 Directions: For each term listed below, write a short paragraph that begins with the defining by difference technique. Say what the term is not and continue with sentences that define what the term is. The first term has been completed for you. 1. Ant lion Despite its name, the ant lion is not a kind of lion. Nor is it an ant, although it does belong to the same overall class as ants, namely, the insects. In its adult stage, the ant lion resembles a dragonfly. In its larval stage, about half an inch long, it hides in a burrow in sandy soil with its big jaws sticking up – ready to 24
devour other insects, such as ants, that fall in. 2. History _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ 3. Food color _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ 4. Asthma _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ 5. Millennial _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
Task 3 Directions: Choose a writing project that pertains to your discipline. Use your new skills to write a 250 word sentence paragraph on the subject. You may access the website for available information.
Communication and Arts As a news desk assistant at a television station, you often do background research to help the reporters and news anchors prepare stories. Today you are working with 25
reporter Kendereck Yuchengco on a profile of a local scientist who has made important new discoveries concerning coelacanths. You and Kendereck know that a coelacanth is a fish; otherwise you know little about the creature. Do some research, take notes, make an outline, and write a paragraph defining coelacanth in a way that will help Kendereck.
Nursing and Allied Medical Courses “What exactly is an EMG?” You are an assistant in a neurologist’s office, where you often hear this question from worried patients who have been told they need such a test. You decide to prepare for an information sheet that you can hand out. For this sheet, write paragraph that defines an EMG by saying what the acronym stands for, what the test involves, how long it takes, and what kind of medical information it yields. Remember that your readers have little knowledge, and that you want to be both straightforward and reassuring. For supplemental information, access the website.
Human, Personal, and Public Service You work as a cosmetology consultant at Kris and James Body Care Spa, Ltd., where the services range from hair coloring to complete makeovers. This month Body Care has added a treatment known as the Belo’s Complete Facial, and you are preparing a description sheet to explain it to customers. Here are the facts: Cost: 8 thousand pesos for 5 treatments Services included: skin analysis, deep pore cleansing with enzyme mask, steaming, and exfoliation with glycolic acid, mineral mask, massage, and moisturization with aloe Vera and algae extracts. Using this information, write a paragraph to define the term Belo’s Complete Facial for your customers. 26
Business Administration, HRM and Accountancy On the menu of your catering service, you list pastitsio as one of your most popular items, but many customers are not familiar with the dish. To supplement the menu, write a paragraph defining pastitsio. Include information about the ingredients and how the dish is prepared. Also, you want to explain the dish’s cultural history. In your audience, is one who hires a catering service: people getting married, families planning a reunion, and so on. If you do not already enjoy pastitsio yourself, consult a cookbook or do a web search for them.
Engineering, Science and Technology In the catalog for your air conditioning business, you list the Btu rating for each unit you stock. This rating is an important indicator of an air conditioner’s ability to cool a given area, and it helps determine the unit’s energy efficiency. Some of your customers, however, do not understand the term Btu, so they do not know how to use the Btu rating to evaluate an air conditioner. To help these customers, write a paragraph defining Btu on the opening page of your catalog. As part of your research, do a web search for information about air conditioners. The web sites are a helpful link. Encyclopedias are another good of source for basic explanations. (Hint: Btu stands for British thermal unit, and you can find the term in a dictionary. But a dictionary definition itself will not be much help for your audience. Define the term in a practical way that will help your customers make decisions about which air conditioner to buy.)
Environmental Science, Agriculture, Education, and Biology
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The pond at Benguet Lily’s Nature Center is a popular spot for nature programs, especially on late summer evenings when the leopard frogs are active and noisy. Pretend that you are a staff member preparing a handout for visitors. Define this type of frog in a paragraph that children as well as adults can understand. Your task is to answer these questions: What exactly is a leopard frog? How will visitors know when they find one? (Hint: The frog’s scientific name is Ranapipiens. Nature guides can tell you about this common frog. You can also find information online by entering the scientific name in a search engine.)
4. CLASSIFICATION Classification organizes information into groups and categories. It means to arrange topics, items, places, ideas, or people into categories. Classification paragraphs usually divide topics into more than two categories that distinguishes them from compare-and– contrast paragraphs, which divide items into two categories only.
The Topic Sentence in a Classification Paragraph In a classification paragraph, the topic sentence states two things: 1.) Who or what you will classify; and 2.) How you will classify it, also known as the “organizing principle.” Subgroups And Examples Define Categories. Subgroups may be classified in any way that will make sense to the reader. By identifying the subgroups, you are giving the reader a clear indication of what to expect in the material ahead. In a classification paragraph, transitional expressions guide the reader from category to category and follow-up sentences express an opinion or make a 28
recommendation about what classified. When to Use a Colon The topic sentence of a classification paragraph contains a colon [:] to signal more is to come. A colon is also used to: 1.) Introduce the classification categories. 2.) Followed by a complete sentence or by phrase.
When to Use a Classification Paragraph 1.) When writing a paragraph that breaks down information into easy-to-grasp classification units. 2.) When supplying examples and illustrations, comparisons, and other writing techniques instead. 3.) When conveying your message, it is best to break down the subject matter into several categories or subgroups. Examples After stating what you will classify and how you will classify it, you may want to give a concrete example to help the reader better understand an idea. Consider the sentences below about music on the radio. 1. Rock music may be divided in three ways, based on the style of music: classic rock, modern rock, and alternative rock. 2. If you like Beatles, the Beach Boys, or ZZ Top, you’ll like the local classic rock station. 3. This way of looking at local radio stations help me recommend stations based on my friends’ tastes in music.
Task 1 Directions: For each of the topics in the following list, write a topic sentence that 29
communicates what people, place, or things you will classify. Example: Physical fitness Topic sentence: Most people who exercise can be divided into three groups according to the reason they give for exercising. Some want to build muscles, some want to lose weight, and some want to improve their cardiovascular health. 1. My favorite subjects ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. The kinds of movies that are animated ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3.Restaurants in my town ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4.Movies that I liked and disliked ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 5. Professionals ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Task 2 Directions: Below is a paragraph from an employee’s handbook that shows how a customer service department is broke down by job categories. Be able to recognize the topic sentence, the categories, the subgroups, the supporting examples, and the follow-up sentence. After reading the paragraph, answer the questions that follow. The Customer Service Department at Benguet Lily Trading Center has five salary ranges, depending on the job title. Customer Service Representative (CSR) Trainees are 30
entry-level employees. Entry-level employees start at minimum wage's Level 1 employees are at the next salary level. Typically, a Trainee will obtain a CSR 1 designation after completing three weeks of training. The next level is CSR II. The CSR II’s earn a higher salary level than the CRS 1’s.They also help train new employees. Finally, CSR Supervisors 1 and CSR Supervisors II are at the highest and second highest salary levels. They are responsible for training, scheduling, and monitoring CSR’s. This method of organizing salary scales provides a clearer understanding of pay ranges for both employees and managers. 1. Name the categories in the paragraph. (There are four.) ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. List an example for each category. Describe why the example is relevant. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. Give the subgroups of supervisors. What is the purpose of subgroup in this paragraph? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Does the writer include a follow-up sentence in the paragraph? If so, what is it and why is it there? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Task 3 Directions: Choose a writing project that belongs to your discipline and use your new skills to write a 250 word sentence paragraph on the subject.
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Communication and Arts You work for Benguet Lily Photography Studio, which specializes in wedding photographs. For years, the studio’s photographers have used lightweight traditional cameras, but you think it is time to upgrade to digital cameras. With digital cameras, the staff will be able to load images directly into the studio’s computers for touch-up and cropping. After doing some research online or in photography magazines, write comparison or contrast paragraph analyzing two models. To find online reviews of digital cameras, try entering “digital camera review” in a search engine. Remember that the camera will be used for weddings, so it should be lightweight and portable. High resolution and large storage capacity are also important. Nursing and Allied Medical Courses As an admissions officer at a health-sciences college, you advise incoming students about career fields. You find that many students are confused about the distinction between occupational therapy and physical therapy, especially since many of the requirements are the same. Write a paragraph that presents the differences. For this activity, you can begin your research with the U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational on Higher Education (CHED) website. Keep in mind that your readers are graduating senior high students who are deciding which career path to pursue.
Human, Personal, Public Service, and Criminology As a communication specialist in the Food Safety Division of your Provincial Agricultural Department, you help educating the public about food safety issues. Lately, you find that people have been increasingly worried about E. coli and Salmonella, but they remain confused about how these bacteria get into food and what illnesses they may cause.
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Write a comparison/contrast paragraph in which you discuss the similarities and differences between these types of bacteria. By entering “food safety” in a search engine, you can find many online sources of information. Be sure to discuss: Ways the bacteria contaminated and Symptoms of infection with these bacteria. Business, Accountancy and HRM Pretend that you are researching new vehicles for a company’s appliance-repair technician. You are deciding between minivans and SUVs. Assume that you narrowed your search to two minivans. Choose two models to compare and contrast. Then select one of these two to recommend to your supervisor. Write a comparison/contrast paragraph to justify your choice. (Hint: Many online sites offer information about new vehicles, and some even offer comparative analysis.)
Engineering, Science and Technology Your company, Benguet Lily Advance Optics, specializes in polycarbonate lenses for eyeglasses. As part of a brochure for your products, you need to distinguish between polycarbonate and more traditional types of plastic. Write a paragraph that presents the contrast or distinction of the two materials. For your online research, you may type “polycarbonate + eyeglass” in a search engine. Look for the key qualities that make this material different and superior from ordinary plastics. Environmental Science, Biology, Agriculture and Education A customer at your tree farm in San Quintin, Pangasinan wants to plant six trees at the edge of her property along a busy highway. She expects the trees to provide a privacy screen in summer and to enhance the property’s appearance. When she comes to you for advice, she says she is considering two trees: Sugar maples (scientific name Acer
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saccharum) and Red oaks (scientific name Quercusrubra). Your job is to advise her about the suitability of these trees and to give recommendation. Write a paragraph that compares and contrasts the two species. Many tree books and online sources can provide research information. Remember to focus on the needs of your customers. If you think these trees are not suitable in San Quintin’s soil, you may choose two other varieties and change the customer’s specifications as necessary.
5. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Comparison and Contrast are common techniques in speaking and in writing. In fact, they are basic to the way you think about the world. Whenever you think, talk, or write about how two objects or people like each other, you are using comparison. A comparison systematically analyzes and evaluates the similarities of two or more things. On the other hand, when you discuss differences, you are using contrast. A contrast is a comparison that emphasizes differences rather than similarities. In a comparison and contrast paragraph, the topic sentence introduces the two subjects to be discussed. The topic sentence also indicates the general focus of the comparison and contrast. When comparing, use the one– side– at-a-time format. Discuss all the relevant qualities of the subject. Then, switch to the other subject, focusing on the same kinds of qualities. Use the point– by point format that begins with one similarity or difference between the two subjects. Then, discuss a second point of comparison and then a third, and so on until you have covered all of the important points. The body of the paragraph should use a point– by point format or a one-side-at-a time format. The point-by-point method deals with one similarity or difference then the next, and so on. The one-side-at-a time method discusses all of the relevant qualities of one subject and then the corresponding qualities of the other subject.
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Techniques in Wring Comparison and Contrast Paragraph 1. Analogy is a common technique that writers use to demonstrate comparison and contrast. It delves beneath the surface differences of at least two subjects exposure unperceived and unsuspecting similarities and/or differences. It is often used when a foreign or abstract concept is compared with a much more tangible or more familiar term for readers to better understand the author’s intended meaning. 2. Example can be the figurative languages like simile, metaphor, oxymoron, and personification. These are also excellent techniques to showcase comparison and contrast. Simile is used to emphasize a direct comparison between or among objects. Expressions with similes are written with the use of the words such as “like” and “as.” Examples: She was a peasant girl like Joan of Arc. Your eyes are as bright as the stars in the night sky. Metaphor is used to present implied comparison between or among objects. Examples: “The first hammer-blow in the railway has fallen on me!” (In this example, Rizal’s emotions of hurt and betrayal are being compared with the pain felt when struck with a hammer-blow intended to build the railway.) Time is gold. (Time is being described as having the same high value as gold.) Oxymoron happens when two seemingly opposite terms are juxtaposed next to- or near- each other in a single expression. Examples: Act naturally, all alone, alone together, auto pilot, a blinding light,” … dead in childbirth…,” deafening silence, a fine mess, a new classic, The Ugly Truth about Beauty (the title of a humorous comparison and contrast type of essay by Dave Barry) Personification is used when non-humans are assigned human characteristics and/or actions. Personification means giving human qualities to an inanimate objects.
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Transitional Terms Used for Comparison and Contrast Comparison
Contrast
Similarly
Unlike
In the same way
In contrast, by contrast
Likewise
conversely
Just as
however
Also
Rather than
Both
While, whereas
Example of Comparison and Contrast
Topic sentence
Although the proposals by the Sta. Lucia Group and the Benguet
Introduce similarities Lily Construction is similar in approach , it offers startlingly And difference
different visions of the ambassador future. Both allow for
Comparisons
a mix of retail and entertainment, such as restaurants a fashion shop, a movie theater, and a fitness center. In the Sta. Lucia proposal, these are all small to midsize spaces, the largest being the four-screen theater. In contrast, the Benguet Lily construction has the complex anchored by a big box retailer
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Point– by– point
such as Garden Gallery or Orion. To allow enough rooms for tenants,
Contrast
Benguet Lily would create a four story mall around the anchor space, complete with an atrium and fountains. StaLucia’ s more modest design requires only two stories on the riverfront and one story at the street. Most important, these two proposals treat the river in radically different ways. Sta. Lucia imagines large windows on the riverfront so diners and shoppers can enjoy a view across the water. Benguet Lily’s design turns its back on the river, allowing only small, high windows facing the water. On the whole, although both proposals are billed as
Concluding sentence retail– entertainment blends, the Benguet Lily Group offers a large mall that might exist anywhere, whereas the Sta. Lucia has given some thought to the unique riverside setting Task 1 Directions: For each pair of items in the following list, supply three points of similarity that could be used in a comparison paragraph. Example: Beauty and the Beast and Sleeping Beauty Animated TV Cartoons
Highly Popular
Based on Disney
Movies 1. Guitar and Ukulele ___________________
_____________________
___________________
2. Christmas and National Heroes Day ___________________
_____________________
__________________
3. Basketball and Sepak Takraw ___________________
_____________________
__________________
4. Coffee and Tea ___________________
_____________________
__________________ 37
5. Lettuce and Cabbage ___________________
_____________________
__________________
_____________________
__________________
_____________________
__________________
_____________________
__________________
_____________________
__________________
6. Gold and Silver ___________________ 7. Psychiatrist and Psychologist ___________________ 8. Baguio and Tagaytay ___________________ 9. Police and Army ___________________
10. University of Santo Tomas and Marinduque State College ___________________
_____________________
__________________
Task 2 Below are topics for comparison and contrast. Choose two topics to compare and contrast. Use graphic organizer to creatively present their similarities and differences. Go on Vacation vs. Stay at Home
Heredity vs. Environment
Biology vs. Physics
Acting vs. Lying
Medicine vs. Law
Physical beauty vs. Inner beauty
Childhood vs. Adulthood
Ellen Degeneres vs. Oprah Winfrey
Communism vs. Capitalism
Plato vs. Socrates
Greek Mythology vs. Roman Mythology
Judaism vs. Christianity
Reality TV vs. Sitcoms
Online vs. Traditional Class
Books vs. Movies
The Hunger Games vs. Divergent
Football vs. Soccer
Julius Caesar vs. Macbeth 38
Revolution vs. Evolution
Task 3 Directions: Choose a writing assignment related to your discipline. Apply your new skills in writing a 250 word classification paragraph on the subjects. Communication and the Arts Imagine that you are the stage manager for a professional theater company. Your job is to make sure that the lights and curtains go up and down on cues and that all of the actors’ props are in the proper place. You make sure that the changes to the set happen quickly during intermission and that the actors are in their proper position at show time. In short, you run the entire show from backstage. Now imagine that you have been asked to participate in a college job fair. All attending theater majors will receive a small booklet about career opportunities in the theater. You have been asked to contribute an essay about the responsibilities of a stage manager. Write a paragraph in which the topic sentence describes a stage manager’s duties before, during and after the show. To write this paragraph, you may need to do some research on the internet. Nursing and Allied Medical Courses You are a chief nurse at MCU Hospital in Caloocan as well as in the MCU college. That means each summers you treat a lot of reckless, overly enthusiastic students for serious cases of sunburn and heatstroke. This year, the hospital and the university are working together to alert students to the danger of overexposure to the sun. Your department was asked to write a section for a pamphlet. Your assignment is to research all of the different methods of prevention and draft a summary to the full committee that is editing the pamphlet. Write a classification paragraph that describes several methods of preventing overexposure to the sun. Examples to consider include using sunscreen, wearing proper clothing, wearing a cap or hat, and staying indoor during certain hours. For more information, access any website and look for Health and Medicine.
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Psychology, Criminology, Public and Social Work Imagine you are a Youth Services Worker who supervises 14 juvenile offenders at the Paranaque City Jail. As part of your job, you write daily activity logs and incident reports. At the end of the week, you file a weekly summary. Write a paragraph on the weekly summary that categorizes incidents based on degrees of severity. (Coming home 20 minutes after curfew isn’t as severe as getting into a fight. Showing disrespect to a staff member is somewhere in between.)
Accountancy, Business Administration and HRM You own and operate a coffee shop. Early each morning you roast the beans so you have the freshest-tasting coffee in town. Write an introductory paragraph for your menu that introduces customers to your wonderful blends of coffees from around the country. How should you categorize coffee? By region? By flavor? By price? By caffeine content? Make a decision. Remember, your readers are customers who enjoy the taste of coffee. Make your categories, subgroups, examples, follow-up relevant to them. To help you access additional content, visit any website and look for Business and Marketing and coffee variety. Engineering, Science and Technology As an industrial designer, you have been developing a new packaging for General Milling Pasta Company products. Tomorrow your firm will be making a presentation to the client. Before General Milling’s CEO looks at the package design, your manager wants you to explain the overall look and feel of the new pasta packaging. Some of the sample boxes are bigger than others, although each holds one pound of pasta. The boxes are designed according to the shape of the pasta. Write an introductory paragraph that classifies pasta according to size. For more information on the content, browse a website and look for Pasta.
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Environmental Science, Education, Agriculture and Biology Imagine that you run a small family-owned farm and petting zoo. All of the animals at your zoo may be handled by children. Your animals are exotic, interesting, and safe. You decide to write letter to invite local elementary schools in your town. The letter will try to get teachers to bring their classes to the petting zoo. You want to impress the teachers with a description of the activities you offer to students. Write a classification paragraph that describes the benefits of visiting your zoo. Fabricate any details you need.
6. CAUSE AND EFFECT Many phenomena, events, situations, and trends can be better understood by describing their causes and effects. The cause and effect relationship explains what happened and why it happened. In analyzing the cause and effect relationship, causal analysis, like process analysis, details a sequence of steps that produce a result, rather than describing these steps, causal analysis examines them for causes and effects. Such an analysis can be developed in three ways: 1.) by describing an action or event and then demonstrating the effect; 2.) by describing an action or event and then determining its cause; or 3.) by examining two related actions or events and proving a cause-and –effect connection between them. In each case, you must be careful not to exaggerate or oversimplify the cause-andeffect relationship. You may be mistaken coincidence for cause, or you may identify one cause as the direct cause when any number of complex causes (working independently or in combination) could have produces the same effect. Normally a cause –and-effect paragraph addresses either a cause or an effect. Think about some examples of cause and effect that you experience everyday: 41
You eat because you are hungry. You sleep because you are tired. Those examples explain cause. They talk about why you eat and why you sleep. For instance, you stay up all night studying for an exam. Now you are sleep-deprived. Your current state is an effect of having too little sleep. Basic Format of a Cause-And-Effect Paragraph The topic statement identifies the subject and says whether cause or effect will be discussed. Transitional expressions introduce new causes and effects, show their degree of importance, or tell which cause or effect came first. Supporting details show how one event caused another. Using Transitional Expressions In a cause-and effect paragraph, a transitional word, phrase, or sentence helps the writer navigate from one idea to another. Transitional expressions also make paragraph more readable and interesting, often motivating a reader to continue when he or she might otherwise stop. To show cause-effect relationship, you may use the following expressions.
Cause Resulting in Effect As a consequence, consequently As a result, leads to One of the effect is If…then, that is why For this reason Hence, therefore So, thus
Effect Resulting in Cause Due to Because, because of Owing to Since One cause For Resulted from
Examples of Cause and Effect Relationship: 42
I think, therefore, I am One outcome of repeated failure is permanent bitterness. Dr. Mendoza became rich as a result of his invention. The mess you see is caused by several months of neglect. Consequently, everything Lawrence thought about became interesting. The carpet is wet because of the rain. Another reason Warren lost the race was weariness. The hair on Harold’s sofa is the result of his dog Borgy sleeping there. The pipe is clogged because no one has cleaned it in a year. My high blood pressure was brought on by stress, lack of exercise, and poor diet.
Task 1 Read the following texts. Underline the transitional words that show cause and effect. Foods for a Healthy Heart When it comes to heart disease, eating a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet is the key to staying healthy. In the past, people seemed to kill themselves, because they know little about balance diet. Today, with all the data available, one cannot ignore that the choice of eating healthy foods or unhealthy foods is his or her option. The biggest problem in avoiding cholesterol is to avoid eating fatty red meat and egg yolks. Unless eaten in very small amounts, red meat is harmful to a healthy heart. It is important to avoid too much meat, especially organ meats such as liver. Other meats which are high in fat should also be avoided, such as bacon, ham hocks, and sausage. Poultry can be eaten in large amounts but the skin should be removed. A large egg yolk contains about 274 milligrams of cholesterol and saturated fat. Egg whites, on the other hand, have protein, but don’t add cholesterol or saturated fat to the diet.
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It is also important to be aware of the different types of fat. Cholesterol is a fat that is found in the human body and in animal fat. Even without eating meat, the body creates cholesterol from foods that contain saturated (solid) fats. Coconut and palm oils are resources of saturated fats. These types of fat are found in many prepared and processed foods. Avoid shortening and butter, because they also have high levels of saturated fat. Eat plenty of low-fat foods. Fish is low in fat and it provides protein for the diet. Beans are excellent sources of protein, because they are completely free of saturated fat and cholesterol. They also provide iron, B vitamins, and vitamin A. Fresh fruits and vegetables are another nutritious sources of low-fat foods. One of the best things about a low-fat, low cholesterol diet is that while helping your heart, it will also regulate your weight. In addition to being fit and healthy, you will look your best. All you have to do is to choose the right foods. Remember, you can’t say you didn’t know.
Task 2 I Am Possible Complete the chart below by providing the possible causes or effects. Cause
Effect Amnesia Flood
1. 2. Studying Toxic wastes Teenage Pregnancy Climate change 7. 8. Buildings 10. Task 3
3. 4. 5. 6. Poor eyesight Early Pregnancy 9. Dengue
Directions: Write a cause-and-effect paragraph on the topics below. Write possible ideas for your topic sentence. Keep in mind that the topic sentence is the focus of the details of 44
that support the entire paragraph. List ideas for supporting details. Find the best ones for your topic sentence. Make sure they are clearly supportive, specific, and relevant.
subjects
Examples of Cause and Effects
Excelling in school
good study habits (cause) Proper sleep (cause) Scholarship opportunities (effect) Sense of personal satisfaction (effect)
Great cooking
learning from a world class chef (cause) practice (cause) a job as chef in fine restaurant (effect) delicious meals (effect)
Consumer spending
effective advertising (cause) sales and special offers (cause) consumer debt (effect) empty store shelves (effect)
Traffic accidents
poor concentration (cause) Fatigue (cause) driving under the influence of liquor (cause) collision (effect) Injury (effect) Death (effect)
Task 4 Directions: Choose a writing project related to your discipline. Use your new skills to write a 250 word cause-and-effect paragraph.
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Communication and the Arts You have given an opportunity to create a tour of a natural history museum. The exhibits in the museum represent 10,000 years of the earth’s history. Select one time period and write a paragraph that explains how that era ushered in the next era. Describe either a cause or an effect and show at least three supporting details. Consider, just because Event A came before Event B does not mean that A caused B. Your job is to show the casual relationship between events. You may access websites that will supplement your writing.
Nursing and Allied Medical Courses Assume that you are working at a health club as a personal trainer. As part of your job, you sell the health services to the general public. Today, you are writing the opening paragraph of a brochure that will introduce the benefits of physical fitness to prospective clients. In this paragraph, you need to show a healthy lifestyle, a sensible diet, and the right amount of exercise that will result in health body. Also, you want to explain how to loss of weight and how the sense of well-being can be achieved through a total fitness regimen. Browse available websites that will help you give more information about this topic.
Psychology, Public Administration, Criminology and Education Pretend that you are working in the Communication Department of a large school district whose current problem is teacher shortage. Your manager has asked you to write a press release for distribution to the local newspapers and radio stations. The purpose of the press release is to encourage job seekers to apply. Begin by composing a cause-andeffect paragraph about the teaching profession. For example, you may describe the feeling of satisfaction that results from teaching, or you may describe the many benefits that result from one’s decision to enter the teaching profession.
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Accountancy, Business Administration and HRM Write a paragraph that explains how investing in advertising results in increase sales. You may write about any business and any kind of advertising that you wish. For example, you may describe how mailing a catalog to more addresses results in increase sales. You also may explain how business grow as the result of a billboard on the side of the expressway.
Engineering, Science and Technology Write cause-and –effect paragraph that describes a natural weather phenomenon. It may be a hurricane, a tornado, thunder and lightning, a strong storm (signal#4), a flood, or some other weather condition. Also, you may describe the cause of the weather condition or its effect. To help you gather additional inputs for your paragraph, surf the internet and enter the key words that identify your event, for example, tornados or hurricane.
Agriculture, Biology, Geology and Environmental Science Write a paragraph about the effect of offshore oil drilling. You may be in favor of offshore drilling, or you may be against it. Environmentalists could cite damaging effects on the environment. Proponents could take a favorable view of what drilling does for the economy. Do not describe the process of offshore drilling. Instead, write about its effect on the environment. You may log on the Google site, search engines and enter the key word offshore drilling for additional information.
7. PROBLEM AND SOLUTION A problem-solution paragraph begins with a topic sentence that presents a problem that follows with details that present a solution for the problem.
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To show the problem-solution pattern, consider the following expressions: The problem Because Since In order to The question is
The solution Cause As a result So that One answer is
Example #1 Our farmers' market is in danger of closing because a building is going to be constructed in the empty lot where it has been held for the past ten years. Since the market is such an asset to our community, a committee formed to look for a new location. The first idea was to close a street off for a few hours each Saturday morning. Unfortunately, the city manager nixed that idea since he believed that too many people would complain. Barry Moore suggested that the market could be held in the state park that is just a few miles out of town. Again, a government worker struck down the idea. This time, the problem was that for-profit events are not allowed in state parks. Finally, I came up with the perfect idea, and our government blessed the idea. Since the high school is closed on Saturday, we will be having the market in the school parking lot.
Example # 2 Some students receive poor grades on writing assignments, not because they lack the ability to communicate but because they cannot seem to manage their time when it comes to a large project. They do not know where to begin and therefore put things off until the last minute. To solve this problem, students need to develop a timeline for completing the project. If they divide the assignment into manageable “chunks” or parts and then set a schedule for completing each part, they will be able to finish the entire project before the deadline. Without the pressure of not knowing where to begin, the students will be able to focus on the assignment and communicate their ideas effectively. Questions that you need to consider…
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1. What problem is presented in the paragraph? 2. What is the solution? 3. What rhetorical strategy does the writer use to develop his/her idea? Task 1 Directions: Read the paragraph that shows the problem-solution pattern. Underline the transition words. Drug abuse is rife in many countries. Every society, every age and ethnic group, every social class, and every family has been touched by the devastating effects of drug addiction. Billions of dollars are spent regulating drug use, treating addicts and their families, and fighting drug-related crime. Although drugs threaten many homes and societies, their effects can be combated more effectively. Drug abuse causes multiple problems for families and communities. Addicts are often too sick, physically and mentally, to function as normal, responsible Despite theseorproblems, theFor menace of drugs be fought. is the first line members of a family of society. example, theycan often neglect Education or abuse their of attack. needrelationships to be taught and at home and in school about of drug abuse. families and Children strain these resources, especially if the theydangers eventually For expensive example, discussions the dinner table and during family require treatment oraround hospitalization. Adult addicts may lose their outings jobs and,and school programs andmeans activities in health classes can give children informationChildren to help them therefore, their of supporting themselves and any dependents. and deal with temptations questions use. Families and counselors need to talk teens who abuseand drugs becomeabout moredrug rebellious and distant from their families, whoto those at risk them resist experimenting with problems. illicit drugs. Anotherproblematic approach toeffect the problem of despair overhelp coping with their loved ones’ drug A second Task 2 and drugabuse abuseisisthe to crimes increasecommitted police manpower and resources stop illegal dealersdrugs and to of drug by those profiting from to selling andenforce the law.addicts Statistics the more drug problem a community, bigger its crime rate and by the whoshow lookthe forbigger more and desperateinways to supportthe their habits. the bigger its need for police protection. Even though the cost of adding more police may Increased police resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing illicit strain a community and its citizens financially, protecting its children from the dangers of drugs and the criminals who profit from them. Communities continue to struggle to drug abuse and cutting down on drug-related crimes are worth the price. In conclusion, find ways to deter drug abuse and to rehabilitate addicts. Combating drug problems although the problems of drug abuse may seem impossible to eliminate or to even control, strains the police departments as well as the communities’ resources. Since many cities there are concrete steps that can be taken to weaken the hold of drugs on families and on and communities are financially strapped, adding more police protection, mainly society. Parents, teachers, and communities must take steps to educate children about the through taxes, puts a strain on the citizens. dangers of drug abuse and must offer safe, appealing alternative for restless, inquisitive young people and programs and for those who are at risk. In addition, police departments must be provided with more manpower, resources, and community support to combat drugrelated crimes. If the war on drugs is to be won, everyone must realize that he or49 she has a stake in the battle and in its outcome. Source from: https://achsenglish.wikispaces.com/file/view/Sample%20Problem-Solution
Task 2 Directions: Read the topic sentence and the first supporting detail of each paragraph. Complete each paragraph by adding details to support the topic sentence and show the problem and solution pattern. Paragraph 1 The high rate of drug cases are serious problems that our country is facing with. The government is taking an action on stopping the problem about drugs. _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ Paragraph 2 ________________________________
Bullying among students is a perennial problem in the school community. This can be attributed to various factors. _________________________________________________________________________________ 50 _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________
Paragraph 3 One of the biggest problems facing the world today is global warming. Many experts believe that our production of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is heating the atmosphere, and this could be very dangerous for human life. __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
Task 3 Directions: Read the article that follows. Use the graphic organizer to present the problem and solution presented in the article. Topic: __________________________ Article headline: _________________ Article date: ____________________
TOWN CONVERTS TRASH INTO FERTILIZER, HOLLOW BLOCKS STUFF* MANILA, Philippines - There’s cash in trash. This is what a town in Davao del Norte has proven by converting garbage in the municipal landfill into several products for various purposes. GMA regional network news Testigo reported Wednesday that Sto. Tomas town in Davao del Norte is converting its garbage into fertilizer and additives for cement in 51
hollow block, paving block and tiles making. The Sto. Tomas town is known as municipal ecological park and ecology center for its environmental and waste management programs. It has also become study destination of other municipalities in the region. The town’s folk convert biodegradable wastes into fertilizer, while the nonbiodegradable ones they make into additives in making other products. The residual wastes from the various garbage processing activities have found unique use in the hollow blocks and pavement block factories, the report said. Hollow blocks makers buy from garbage recyclers the residue which is mixed with sand and cement to make sturdy blocks for construction purposes. Recyclers grind plastic and cellophane refuse, which they mix with cement and sand. The report said that Sto. Tomas’ dump site doesn’t stink as wastes are recycled and disposed off properly. - GMANews.TV-
See more at: http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/91273/news/regions/townconverts-trash-into-fertilizer-hollow-blocks-stuff#sthash.AYUQnl7z.dpuf Problem
Solution
My Ideas
My Ideas
Task 4 Choose a trending issue in our country today. Apply what you have learned. Write a 250 sentence problem-solution paragraph about the issue that you have chosen.
PERSUASION 52
Writers use persuasion when they want to convince to readers to do something specific or to agree with their point of view on a particular issue.
Elements of a Persuasive Paragraph 1.) A central proposition or argument 2.) Supporting points that demonstrate valid reasons for the proposition or argument 3.) An awareness of the audience and an appeal to the readers’ interests 4.) A concluding sentence that reinforces the strongest argument of the writer’s case.
Stating Your Proposition A persuasive paragraph is based on a central argument, or proposition supported by logical reasons. The proposition may be a point of view or a proposed action. An effective proposition must be clear, focused, and debatable. Being debatable means that there must be at least two sides of argument, even though the persuasive paragraph presents only one side.
Consider the examples: Debatable:
College and universities should require students to wear uniforms
Not debatable: College and universities that enforce uniform policies show higher achievement and fewer discipline problems than schools that do not require uniforms. A proposition should not be merely a statement of opinion. To write persuasively, you must support your proposition statement with arguments, evidence, and logic. You must be able to offer reasons that support your point of view or proposed action.
Supporting Your Proposition with Arguments 53
Once you have composed an appropriate proposition statement, you must back up the point using arguments and evidence. Note that the word argument does not have a negative connotation in this context. Argument is the use of reasons to convince someone of something. While your proposition is debatable, the arguments that support it must be factual. They should be verifiable and specific. In choosing supportive arguments, the writer must be aware of the paragraph’s intended audience. Certain arguments will be more effective with some people than with others. The arguments should appeal to the reader’s own interests. A concluding sentence reinforces the strongest argument to make the writer’s case. The following are some transition signals that can help you express your ideas for writing a persuasive essay.
Introduction I believe In my own opinion From my point of view I maintain that
Details First Second Third Finally In addition Likewise, Besides Furthermore Again Equally important
Conclusion As I have noted In conclusion Without a doubt Obviously In summary In short In any case Finally To conclude
Example of Persuasive Writing
Valued Guest* Here at Benguet Lily Luxury Suites, we appreciate our natural environment, and we work hard to protect it. One way we do this is though our new water conservation program. With this program, we offer you the opportunity to enjoy a comfortable stay at Benguet Lily |Luxury Suites while contributing to a healthier planet. As you know, water is a precious resource. By using less water, we can leave a greener and more vibrant planet for our children. In addition, reducing water consumption helps to lower costs and to keep room rates affordable for our guests.
Our water conservation program means that your 54
housekeeper will provide clean sheets and towels for as long as they wish. As always, our housekeeping staff will tidy your room at your convenience. By participating in this program, you help conserve our region’s water supply and contribute to the long-term health of the planet. We h hope that you choose to be involved in this exciting new program, and that you enjoy your stay at Benguet Lily Luxury Suites. *Alex V. Abelos Essays and Biographies
Task 1 Choose an object that will represent you. Identify the characteristics of the objects you have chosen. Let them believe the advantages of being YOU. Be ready for your presentation. ________________________________________________________________________
Task 2 Directions: Read each proposition statement below and determine whether it is appropriate for a persuasive essay. Ask yourself if the statement is debatable. If the statement can be argued from the opposite point of view, it is debatable, and therefore, appropriate. If the statement is factual- either factually correct or factually incorrect-it is not appropriate for a persuasive paragraph. In addition, the statement should be merely an opinion.
1. The city should install more traffic lights at busy intersections. Appropriate? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________________________
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2. Chocolate cake is delicious. Appropriate? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________________________
3. Working hard and getting good grades in school is important. Appropriate? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________________________
4. This year’s rainfall has been higher than average. Appropriate? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________________________
5. The Honda Civic gets better gas mileage than the Toyota Innova. Appropriate? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________________________ Task 3 Directions: Write a persuasive paragraphs or essay on the following topics. Remember that your topic should be debatable and should be a proposition that you can back up with reasons. It should not simply be you’re feeling about something. Here are some suggestions. Select one for essay writing.
All students who want to attend college should (or should not) be allowed to
attend for free. The government should (or should not) allow oil companies to raise their fuel
prices every now and then. Young children should (or should not) be allowed to dress in the style of current
entertainers. Homosexual and lesbians should (or should not) be allowed to teach in the
elementary and high school level. Homosexual marriage should (or should not) be allowed by the government and their respective churches. 56
Old and retired teachers should or should not) be allowed to teach again. Politicians should (or should not) have limits on the amount of money they are
allowed to raise for campaigning. The government should (should not) Filipino women to work as entertainers in
Japan. The government should (should not) execute by firing squad fraternity heads and
members involved in hazing. Showbiz couples who are involved in marriage scandal (like Regine Velasquez) should or should not be executed by firing squad.
Task 4 Directions: Choose one writing project related to your discipline. Write a 250 word persuasive essay on the subject. Communication Arts Being a promoter of a new record label, your job includes identifying up-andcoming artists and attracting them to your label. To draw them in, you must persuade them that it is in their interest to sign with you. You are small independent company that provides both advantage and disadvantages compared to large established labels. Your job is to emphasize the advantages. Write a paragraph in which you argue that musicians should choose your company. For backgrounds about the recording industry, access the websites for information about independent labels.
Nursing and Allied Medical Courses You are a public health official preparing for the upcoming flu season. You know that some doctors prescribe antibiotics for common ailments such as colds and viral infections that produce flu-like symptoms, whether or not the illness is caused by a bacterial infection. Antibiotics are recommended only for bacterial infections. Because of the overuse of antibiotics, many health professionals are concerned that the medications will lose their effectiveness.
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In preparation for the rainy season, you are writing a public service announcement that encourages people not to take antibiotics, unless they are needed for a specifically diagnosed bacterial infection. For more information about antibiotic resistance, log on to the Internet search engine. Write a paragraph persuading people to protect public health by using these medications properly. Psychology, Public Administration, Social work and Criminology You are working as a regional outreach director for the International Red Cross. Your job includes recruiting new volunteers by persuading them that service in the Red Cross would help them achieve their educational, professional, and personal goals. Although most people think of the Red Cross as an opportunity to serve others, the organization offers many benefits for volunteers. After reading about the Red Cross programs and opportunities (research for their brochure or log on to the Red Cross Web site), compose a paragraph persuading potential volunteers to get involved, or at least learn more about the Red Cross Organization. Accountancy, Business Administration, HRM and Tourism Marketing involves identifying people who need what you are selling and then persuading them that your product is the best one to serve their needs. As the director of marketing for a small travel agency, you send out periodic e-mail alerts to past and potential customers, informing them about current sales and other promotions. Compose a paragraph based on the proposition that readers should plan a trip by summer. Support your proposition with arguments about airline prices, vacation hot spots, and other information. If you like, you may create details about possible vacation destinations, deals, and other information or research the brochures of the Department of Tourism for available vacation spots. You may also inquire on the package tours of several airlines such as Philippine Airlines, Cathay Pacific Airways, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways, and Malaysia Airline System. Engineering, Computer Science and Technology As an Information Technology executive, you want your employees to keep updated in this fast-changing industry so your company can remain competitive. You 58
believe that e-learning, or electronic learning, is an excellent and cost-effective way to achieve this. Because you have been studying the possibilities and effects of e-learning, you are excited about bringing these ideas to your company. You decide to write a memo to your manager, explaining the benefits that you perceive from this new approach to workplace training. Before writing your memo, you can learn more about e-learning by searching on the Internet search engine on e-learning. Once you have acquired an understanding of elearning and its benefits, write a paragraph persuading your manager to bring this technology to your company.
Environmental science, Biology, Agriculture and Education You work for an advocacy organization that tries to protect the country’s natural resources by promoting smart growth, resource conversation, and recycling programs. Your organization recently completed a report analyzing your city’s recycling programs. You learned that consumers are not taking advantage of the many excellent programs that are already in place. Your research also shows that the lack of participation is, to a large degree, a result in consumers’ lack of information about the benefits of recycling. Write a paragraph that aims to encourage the customer to take advantage of city recycling programs. You may log on to the Internet for more information about recycling.
Lesson 4: Properties of a Well Written Text
Lesson Outcomes At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to have demonstrated understanding on how to:
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A. Identify the properties of a well written text 1. Organization 2. Coherence and cohesion 3. Language use 4. Mechanics B. Critique an article in terms of the pattern of development focusing on information selection, organization, and development.
1. ORGANIZATION OF A WELL WRITTEN TEXT The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication is powerful, both for the "sender" and the "receiver." For the writer, a well-organized outline of information serves as a blue print for action. It provides focus and direction as the writer composes the document, which helps to ensure that the stated purpose is fulfilled. For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with which one can understand and remember the information being presented. People seek out patterns to help make sense of information. When the reader is not able to find a pattern that makes sense, chaos and confusion abound. Effective communication, then, begins with a clearly organized set of ideas following a logical, consistent pattern. Thus, one of the most important decisions a writer makes concerns the pattern of organization that is used to structure and order information.
There are many patterns a writer can use to organize his/her ideas. The specific pattern (or combination of patterns) chosen depends upon the particular topic and the objectives the writer has identified for the document. There is no rule to follow in choosing a pattern of organization; one must simply think carefully about which pattern makes the most sense in helping the reader to better understand and remember the information. There are many different ways of organizing the same information, and often two or more different organizational patterns are combined to create a final outline of information.
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The most commonly used patterns of organization are described below. 1. Chronological Patterns A chronological pattern of organization arranges information according to a progression of time, either forward or backward. When a topic is best understood in terms of different segments of time, a chronological format works well. For example, topics of an historical nature are best organized using this pattern. When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information represents a particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each main section refer to significant events that occurred within that time frame. A variation of this organizational pattern involves dividing a topic into "past-present-future" or" before-during-after" segments. Chronological Pattern Example I. 1895 - 1920 Significant Event # 1 Significant Event # 2 II. 1920 - 1945 Significant Event # 1 Significant Event # 2 III. 1945 - 1970 Significant Event # 1 Significant Event # 2
2. Sequential Patterns A sequential pattern of organization is similar to a chronological pattern, but arranges information according to a step-by-step sequence that describes a particular process. Using a sequential pattern, each main section of information represents a main step that one would follow in the actual process. The points included within each main 61
section represent the sub-steps one would follow. When one wishes to describe a process that follows a specific series of steps in a particular order, then, a sequential pattern works well.
Sequential Pattern Example I. Step One: Harvest the grapes Harvesting procedure number one Harvesting procedure number two II. Step Two: Prepare the grapes Preparation procedure number one Preparation procedure number two III. Step Three: Ferment the grapes Fermenting procedure number one Fermenting procedure number two IV. Step Four: Press the grapes Pressing procedure number one Pressing procedure number two
V. Step Five: Age the wine Aging procedure number one Aging procedure number two 3. Spatial Patterns A spatial pattern of organization arranges information according to how things fit together in physical space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern 62
works well when a writer wishes to create a mental picture of something which has various parts distinguished by physical location. Topics involving geography, for example, are often best organized using a spatial pattern.
Spatial Pattern Example I. Downtown Waterfront Aquarium Pike Place Market II. Seattle Center Space Needle Pacific Science Center III. University District University of Washington campus The "Ave" (shops on University Avenue)
4. Compare-Contrast Patterns A compare and contrast pattern arranges information according to how two or more things are similar to or different from one another (or both). This is an effective pattern to use when the reader can better understand one subject when it is described in relation to another. If the reader is familiar with one topic, the writer can compare or contrast it with another topic to shed insight on it. For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to help the reader make an informed decision about whether to attend a two-year college or a four-year university. One way to arrange the information is to compare and contrast the two educational options along several important dimensions, such as cost, quality of education, and variety of educational programs. In this case, the number of main sections in the outline would depend on how many dimensions or factors were considered (three in the case 63
below). Another way to arrange the information would be to create two main sections, one that describes similarities and one that describes differences (as shown in example # 2). Notice that either format could be equally effective.
Compare and Contrast Pattern Example One I. Cost of Tuition Two-year Four-year II. Quality of Education Two-year Four-year III. Educational Programs Two-year Four-year
5. Advantages-Disadvantages Patterns This pattern organizes information about a topic by dividing it up into its "good" and "bad" parts, or pro's and con's. It is effective to use when a writer wishes to objectively discuss both sides of an issue without taking a persuasive stance. This allows the reader to weigh both sides of an issue. As with the compare-contrast pattern, there are a number of possible variations to an advantages-disadvantages pattern. The simplest form of this pattern is shown below. Suppose, for example, that a writer's stated purpose is to describe the advantages and disadvantages of attending a two-year college. One way to arrange the information is to divide it into two main sections, one for the advantages and one for the disadvantages. In this scenario, the information contained within each main section will represent the specific topics of analysis (cost, accessibility, etc). 64
Advantages and Disadvantages Example I. Advantages Cost Accessibility II. Disadvantages Number of educational programs Quality of instruction
6. Cause-Effect Patterns This pattern is used to show the different causes and effects of various conditions. This pattern is particularly effective when writing a persuasive document in which the writer advocates some action to solve a problem, because it demonstrates important relationships between variables. There are two major variations to this pattern; (a) dividing the outline into two major sections comprised of causes and effects; or (b) dividing the outline according to the different causes, with the effects of each cause contained within the larger "causes" section. See the examples below.
Cause and Effect Pattern Example I. Causes of Conflict Escalation Expanding the issues Personal attacks II. Effects of these causes Lose focus on original issue 65
Cycle of defensive responses Win-Lose orientation Negative emotions
7. Problem-Solution Patterns A problem-solution pattern divides information into two main sections, one that describes a problem and one that describes a solution. This pattern is typically used in persuasive writing, where the writer's general purpose is to convince the reader to support a certain course of action. The pattern is designed to compel the reader to make some kind of change in opinion or behavior by establishing that a problem exists, then providing a solution. In the problem section, the writer identifies different aspects of the problem being discussed and offers evidence of these problems. In the solution section, the writer identifies a potential solution and supports the effectiveness of this solution over others.
Problem-Solution Example I. Problem: Motorized Transportation Increasing traffic congestion Increasing pollution Increasing "road rage" from traffic-related stress
II. Solution: Riding Bicycles Bike riding reduces the number of motorized vehicles in use Bike riding is not a source of pollution Bike riding has physical and psychological health benefits
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Topical Pattern This pattern is the most commonly used format, and will typically work when the other patterns do not. A topical pattern arranges information according to different sub-topics within a larger topic, or the "types" of things that fall within a larger category. Using this pattern, each "type" represents a main section of information.
Topical Pattern Example I. Red Wines A. European Bordeaux Burgundy Chianti B. Californian Cabernet Sauvignon Pinot Noir Zinfandel II. White Wines A. European Bordeaux Burgundy Mosel B. Californian Sauvignon Blanc Chardonnay Riesling 67
_______________________________________________________________________ Task 1 Directions: Read the passages and determine how each is structured. On a sheet of paper, put the information from each passage into an appropriate graphic organizer. The following graphic organizers are examples. Feel free to make changes if necessary.
1. Market Leaders Most mobile phones sold today have an operating system that was either designed by Apple or Google. Apple makes the iOS operating system powering their iPhones and iPads. Google makes the Android operating system that can be found on many different mobile phones and tablets. Both of these operating systems allow users to connect to app stores and download applications. To launch these applications, users press small square buttons that appear on their home screens. One major difference between these two operating systems is that Apple makes all of its own hardware. That is to say, the iOS operating system only appears on products created by Apple. On the other hand, many different manufacturers like Samsung, Sony, and LG use the Android operating system. Which one do you like better: Android or iOS?
2. Downloading Apps Getting a new phone is a really cool feeling, but your phone can’t do much without applications. In order to get the most from your new phone, you need to download apps. To do this you will need a data connection. Some plans allow you to get data from your phone network. If your plan lets you to do this, you can connect to web services anywhere that your phone gets a signal. If your plan does not let you to do this, 68
you will need to connect your device to a Wi-Fi network. Free Wi-Fi can be found at coffee shops, laundry mats, and other public locations. Once your phone is receiving data, go to the application store on the device. Use the search or browse functions to find fun, interesting, or useful programs. Once you have found an application that you want to try, click the button to download and install it on your device. Not all applications are free, so make sure that you know how much the app costs before agreeing to download it. Also, if you are under the age of 18, get your parent’s permission before downloading anything. You’ll like your new phone so much more once you have some cool apps.
3. Lost and Found A mobile phone is lost every second by some estimates. A 2011 survey shows that about 22% of Americans have lost a mobile phone. When a person loses their phone, they don’t just lose a device that may have cost as much as $600, they lose phone numbers, photos, and sensitive information. If the phone isn’t locked and it gets lost or stolen, someone may use it to commit identity theft. Perhaps the worst part about this is that it can be prevented. Today’s smart phones have free applications that allow you to find your lost phone using GPS signals. Even if you cannot retrieve your phone, you can use these applications to delete your data so that you are less likely to become a victim of identity theft. Losing your phone feels horrible, but if you take the time to install a phone-finding app, you’ll be much better prepared to deal with it.
4. Eyes on the Road For better or worse, mobile phones are changing the world; however, one place where phones are definitely making things worse is on the road. Today it is common for motorists to play with their mobile phones while driving. Drivers may get bored or impatient while waiting in traffic and use their smart phones to pass the time by checking sports scores, stock numbers, or news stories. Worse still, they may engage in text 69
messaging. Some drivers are so used to receiving and responding to communications immediately that it does not occur to them to wait until an appropriate time to respond. As soon as they get a message, these drivers will try to read and respond to it. There are many reasons why people use cell phones while driving, but none of them are good reasons.
5. The Intelligent Telephone A smart phone is a mobile phone with built-in computer system that can send emails, view websites, or download applications. The first use of the term smart phone was in 1997, when Ericson described its GS 88 as a “smart phone.” In 2003 phones got even smarter when Andy Rubin launched the Android mobile operating system. It would take years for the first Android powered phone to reach the market, but today over 80% of all mobile phones are powered by Android. Yet, perhaps the biggest development in the history of smart phones occurred in 2007, when the original iPhone was released. The first iPhone didn’t even have an app store, but it set many of the standards that people have come to expect from smart phones, like using the phone with just a finger on the screen rather than with a keypad or stylus. Smart phones have changed the world and continue to improve. I don’t know where the future will take us, but I bet that the phones will be cooler.
6. Difficult Decisions Since I made honor roll every quarter this year, my mom is going to buy me a new phone for my birthday. I can’t decide whether I want to get an iPhone or a Galaxy. They are both really cool phones, and they cost about the same, but they are also different in a lot of ways too, like the Galaxy has a bigger screen. The iPhone’s screen isn’t small or anything, it’s just not as big as the Galaxy’s. However, the iPhone connects with my iTunes account. All of my music is already uploaded to iTunes, so all I have to do is sync my phone and then I can listen to all of my music. That’d be cool. But if I got the Galaxy, I could use Google Play to upload my old songs and buy new ones. This would 70
give me a chance to go through my old music collection. That’d be cool too. I’m not sure which one I’m going to get but I’m super pumped about it either way. Maybe if you make honor roll every quarter next year, you can get a new phone too. It’s worth a shot. http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/text-structure-worksheets/
Task 2 Directions: Read each of the following passages and complete the following steps on a separate of paper. A. Write the main idea B. Write how the text is mainly organized C. Put key information from the text into the appropriate graphic organizer. 1. What’s that in the sky? Is it a bird? Is it a plane? No, it’s a firework! Fireworks capture the attention of crowds around the world, but how do they work? First, the firework is stuffed into a tube loaded with gunpowder. This is the mortar. Second, a fuse that leads to the mortar is lit. When the fuse ignites the gunpowder in the mortar, an explosion launches the firework into the air. A fuse on the firework is lit at the same time as the mortar fuse, but this fuse burns slower, allowing the firework to get into the air before it explodes. After it has risen to its peak, the firework should explode, causing tiny pieces of metal to burn in different colors as they scatter outward. Oooooh! 2. Fireworks are beautiful; but as with many beautiful things, they are also dangerous. Misusing fireworks can result in property damage, injury, and even the loss of life. Such accidents usually happen for one of two reasons. The operators may be using poorly manufactured products, such as fireworks with fuses that burn too quickly. A defective firework can cause even the most skilled operator to have an accident. Other times, however, it is the operator who is at fault. The operator may be unskilled or distracted and make a mistake, such as setting up an explosion sequence improperly or not accounting 71
for conditions in the environment, like soundproof foaming. For these reasons even the most beautiful fireworks display can turn really ugly really quickly. 3. Fireworks have been around for at least as long as gunpowder. Both gunpowder and fireworks are Chinese inventions. During the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, fireworks were commonly sold in Chinese markets as a way to get rid of evil spirits. During the thirteenth century, Chinese merchants developed rocket propulsion. This allowed fireworks to travel great distances, much like they do today. In the 17th century, Chinese fireworks were popularized in Europe. After becoming popular with the British, fireworks spread all over their vast empire. Nowadays people around the world celebrate with fireworks. Whether at a sporting event, concert, or public gathering, fireworks signal a great celebration. 4. There is an increase in firework related injuries every year around the Fourth of July. Emergency rooms around the city become filled with children and adults suffering from wounds and burns inflicted by fireworks. But you don’t have to suffer from these injuries. Keep yourself safe by staying away from fireworks. If you see someone who is not a professional playing with fireworks, take that as your cue to leave. If everyone stayed away from fireworks, there wouldn’t be any fireworks related injuries. You can’t control everyone, but you can control yourself. If you remember that accidents happen, you can keep them from happening to you. Stay away from amateur firework displays this Fourth of July. 5. Last night there was a fireworks display at a park by my house. The community sponsored it, so it was really cool. Around 5:30 PM, people began gathering on the beach. The local radio station was playing music and restaurants were selling food. My friends and I played along the tree line while we waited until dark. Around 8:30 they started the show. It was a beautiful show. The explosions were timed to music and it lasted for about half an hour, but we snuck out during the grand finale, so that we wouldn’t get stuck in traffic. I love firework displays. http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/text-structure-worksheets/ 72
I.
COHERENCE AND COHESION
Cohesion is the connection of the sentences and ideas in your text. For example, words and phrases used in one statement must stick together or lead to the flow of ideas in the succeeding statements. When a text is cohesive, the sentences appear a single unit, not just a random sequence of sentences or thoughts. Good cohesion leads to coherence. Coherence, on the other hand is the overall understandability of what you say or write. It refers to the logic of ideas in how such ideas are presented rather than the language used to explain or expressed them. It makes sure that each phrase, sentence, and paragraph contribute to the overall meaning of an entire piece. Simply, cohesion refers to sentence unity while coherence deals more on text unity. In order to be a good writer and speaker, one must learn to make these two principles. Cohesive writing is achieved when the writers can smoothly transition one sentence to another. Through this smooth transition, all details in the paragraph become well connected and the readers are able to follow the progression of ideas easily. To achieve cohesion, the writer should pay close attention to how words, phrases, and sentences are linked within the paragraph.
Cohesive devices 1. Lexical chains refer to the sequence of related words in writing sentences or paragraphs. Through the effective use of lexical chains, a writer is able to present his/her ideas in a cohesive manner. Example: The students listened carefully as the teacher gives the directions for their experiment in the Science laboratory, which help them understand and explain the scientific analysis of it.
2. Cohesive nouns are single words that name an idea presented by the writer in the preceding sentence/s. These create a clear connection between the first and the succeeding sentences. Example: They will be on a tour for tomorrow’s field trip. Everyone are so excited to the given itineraries given by the organizer.
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3. Pronoun reference is another way to achieve cohesive writing. Basically pronouns are used to replace nouns. The word/group of words that a pronoun replaces or refers to is called antecedent. Cohesion is achieved when the relationship between the pronoun and its antecedent is clear. Example: The driver who personally return the found money in his taxi is very honest.
4. Ellipsis is another cohesive device. It is done by omitting a word phrase and substituting them with those dots. Instead of repeating, the writer omits words without changing the meaning of the sentence. Example: Ana doesn’t want to go out for a movie and so as Beth, since their tests will be tomorrow already. (doesn’t want to go out for a movie)
5. Unlike ellipsis where the writer leaves out words, substitution achieves cohesion by replacing a word or an idea with a more general word. Example: The mother asked his son, “Which color of bag do you like?” The daughter replied excitedly, “I like the pink one!”
6. Through the correct use of conjunctions-coordination's and subordinators-writers are able to connect ideas logically. Example: Teenagers should be careful in engaging themselves with social media because syndicates use them to earn money. 7. Transitional words and expressions to help you connect words and sentences smoothly and produce a coherent and cohesive text. Addition
Cause –Effect
Comparison
And
As a result
By the same
Also
Then
token
Furthermore
Therefore
In similar fashion
Moreover
Thus
Likewise
Besides
Consequently
Similarly 74
First, second, third
For this reason
In like manner
In addition
Accordingly
In the same way
In the first place, in the
And so
second place
Hence
To begin with, next,
so
finally Place
Emphasis
Contrast
In back of
Definitely
But
In front
Indeed
On the contrary
Nearby
In face
On the other hand
On top of
No
However
To the left, to the right
yes
In contrast
Above
Instead
Alongside
nevertheless Still Yet
Example
Restatement
Time
To illustrate
In short
Recently
As an example
In other words
meanwhile
For example
In simple terms
Previously
For instance
That is
Simultaneously
Particularly
To put it differently
Afterward
Specifically
To repeat
At the same time Then Until now In the future In the meantime In the past Later Currently
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Earlier Formerly Immediately Subsequently
Conclusion and Summary thus
after all
in conclusion
at last
on the whole
finally
to conclude
in brief
to summarize
in closing
and so
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Why is understanding coherence and cohesion important? It’s an important part of understanding a text as a whole. Analyzing how different parts of the text are related to each other helps you understand the functions of different words and phrases. Some exam tasks test this, meaning that you need to think about more than just the exact point in a text where an exam item, such as a missing word, appears. This might be to decide whether an answer should be negative or positive, or, for example, if it should be a pronoun or an article.
Example paragraph of missing structure Thirty sixth-grade students wrote essays that were analyzed to determine the effectiveness of eight weeks of training to distinguish fact from opinion. That ability is an important aspect of making sound arguments of any kind. in an essay written before instruction began, the writers failed almost completely to distinguish fact from opinion. In an essay written after four weeks of instruction, the students visibly attempted to distinguish fact from opinion, but did so inconsistently. In three more essays, they distinguished fact from opinion more consistently, but never achieved the predicted level. In a final essay written six months after instruction ended, they did no better than they did in their pre-instruction essay. Their training had some effect on their writing during the instruction period, but it was inconsistent, and six months after instruction it had no measurable effect.
Revised Paragraph In this study, thirty six-grade students were taught to distinguish fact from opinion. They did so during the instruction, but the effect was inconsistent, less than predicted, and six months after instruction ended, the instruction had no measurable effect. In an essay written before instruction began, the writers failed almost completely to distinguish fact from opinion. In an essay written after four weeks of instruction, the students visibly attempted to distinguish fact from opinion, but did so inconsistently. In
three more essays, they distinguished fact from opinion more consistently, but never achieved the predicted level. In a final essay written six months after instruction ended, they did no better than they did in their pre-instruction essay. We thus conclude that shortterm training to distinguish fact from opinion has no consistent or long term effect.
How to improve cohesion in sentences 1. Rewrite your sentences so that they begin with information familiar to your reader and the sentences end with information that readers cannot anticipate. 2. Use the Writer’s diet to re-write your original paragraph until it is fit and trim. 3. Write your original and your two re-written paragraphs onto a fresh piece of paper (in no pre-set order). Swap this page with your neighbor. Let him order the paragraphs according to clarity.
Task 1 Read the following text. Underline the cohesive devices used in the text. I become disgusted when I'm exposed to people with atrocious manners. I'm sickened when they lick their fingers as they eat. I think it's repulsive when they chew with their mouths open, and I become irritated when they use their teeth to open packages of food. Recently, I went to a movie theater with my family and some friends. Just before the movie started, the friend next to me decided that it was the perfect time to devour a large bag of greasy potato chips. At first, she wrestled to open the bag. She tried pinching and pulling and finally tore it open with her teeth. The bag burst and the top portion of the chips flew everywhere, including on my lap. Every time she stuck her fingers into the bag to get a chip, the bag crackled. Her teeth crunched loudly on each chip and her mouth hung open for everyone to see. As she finished the bag, she licked her fingers. Next she held up her hand to let it dry and I saw her saliva glistening in the lights of the room. Unsightly! Needless to say, when she offered to shake hands with me at the end of the night, I avoided them and gave her a hug. https://opencourses.uoc.gr/courses/pluginfile.php/16672/mod_resource/content/0/Presentation%203%20%20Coherence-Cohesion%20in%20Writing.pdf
Task 2 Below are sentences that need to be linked to each other by using a linking word. 1. Drugs and various crimes continues to be a serious problem in the Philippines. Numerous efforts have been made to combat crime. 2. The accused was found guilty. The accused denied committing the murder. 3. The financial management company charges an upfront fee. They charge an ongoing Operating expense. 4. He failed to win the athletic competition. He trained every day for five years. 5. He has a lot of money because he committed fraud. He is a thief. ________________________________________________________________________ Task 3 Organize
these
five
sentences
into
a cohesive paragraph
by
adding
appropriate transitional words and phrases. 1. Dr. Edward Manahan, after experimenting with rats over a long period of years, found that rats that learned to run a maze under the pressure of hunger took much longer to learn the maze than rats that learned under non-crisis conditions. 2. The learning that did take place was of a narrow type. 3. After learning the "right" route, these rats panicked if one avenue were blocked off. 4. They were not able to survey the field to notice alternative routes. 5. When the rats were permitted to learn under non-crisis conditions, they later performed well in a crisis. http://grammar.about.com/od/developingparagraphs/a/cohrevisepars1.htm
Task 4 Choose an essay that you have written for any other subject except English class. Choose one to three related paragraphs from your essay. Working with a partner, identify what flaws exist in your paragraphs. After getting feedback from your partner, revise your paragraphs by applying the techniques you have learned in the lesson. Then, working in groups of three, exchange your work with your group mates. Ask your classmates to comment on your paragraph’s overall improvement. Task 5 Your job is to research on the characteristics of a good essay and well developed paragraph. The task is to compile these and then turn them into a “recipe” for a good essay. Your clients are your fellow students. The challenge is to think of what food would best represent a good essay, and the ingredients and steps involved in making that dish. You will create a recipe page for a good essay, and your work needs to follow the format of a recipe, should be well researched, and creative for it to be successful.
II.
LANGUAGE USE OF A WELL WRITTEN TEXT
People use language in patterned ways. We use more formal ways of speaking when talking to someone important. We use more casual forms when speaking with friends or family. However, in language assessment we are more interested in the patterned ways people use more than one language when there is bilingualism, or multilingualism. Switzerland is a classic example of a phenomena called diglossia. Swiss-German is used in the home and all non-formal situations, but High German is used for education, reading, and writing. A balanced state of usage like this is called stable diglossia. Neither language is losing precedence to the other. However, in many communities worldwide one language is becoming more dominant and the heritage language, the language that has been used for generations in the home, is losing usefulness. Assessing the use of language is important for many reasons. The examination of
language use patterns strengthens our understanding of human communication and the primary purposes for each language. The inventory, or repertoire, of languages along with knowledge about the frequency of contact in social contexts, enables the researcher to identify the quality of interpersonal and intergroup relationships that individuals or entire communities have with one another. Without actually living with a speech community, there is rarely enough time to observe behavioral patterns as they spontaneously occur. Moreover, the presence of a researcher can be intrusive and actually obstruct naturally occurring acts of communication. Therefore, an alternate, indirect method is to obtain “reconstructed observations” – that is, to ask people to recollect their own and others language use patterns. For example, these questions may be asked in order to obtain a general impression of language use patterns: 1. How many languages does a person understand? (list). 2. What is each language used for? (context, purpose). 3. Where are the languages used? (location). 4. With whom? (relationships). 5. How often? (frequency).
Standard English Depending on the circumstances, your language can be formal, informal, or somewhere in between. This chart shows some of the appropriate uses of very formal and very informal English. Uses of Formal and Informal English FORMAL
INFORMAL
SPEAKIN
Formal, dignified
Everyday conversation at home, school
G
occasions such as banquets
work, and recreation
and dedication ceremonies
WRITING
Serious papers and report
Personal letters, journal entries, and many newspaper and magazine articles
Features of Formal and Informal English
Features
Formal
Informal
Sentence
Long and difficult
Short and easy
Structure Word choice
Precise; often
Simple and ordinary; often includes
Tone
technical or scientific Serious and dignified
contractions, colloquialisms and slang conversational
Uses of Informal English Colloquialisms are the informal words and phrases of conversational language. They bring flavor and color to everyday speech and a friendly, conversational tone to writing. Many colloquialisms are figures of speech that aren't meant to be taken literally. Slang is made up newly coined words or of old words used in unconventional ways. It is usually clever and colorful. It is often a special language for specific groups of people, such as students and military personnel. Some people use slang to be up to date. Example Bummer– a depressing experience Cool– pleasing, excellent Cop out– to quit, abandon Hassle– to annoy, harass Weirdo– a bizarre or strange person _______________________________________________________________________
Task 1 Directions: Rewrite sentences in more formal English. 1. “Bought another pack of coffin nails, huh? Haven’t you heard about the Surgeon General’s report?” ________________________________________________________________________
2. Maria may seem stuck up, but she’s really just shy. ________________________________________________________________________
3. If I can’t get my parents to cough up the money, I won’t be able to have my bike repaired. ________________________________________________________________________ 4. She plays a wicked game of tennis. ________________________________________________________________________ 5. He tried to butter up his sister with compliments, but she still wouldn't lend him car. ________________________________________________________________________
Task 2 Pretend that you are the President of your organization. Write a letter to your Principal, requesting for permission to let you conduct a youth seminar to students aiming for strengthening the culture and values of students. Remember to be guided on how to write a formal letter.
Task 3
You will have a symposium about bullying to students. Write a short speech to welcome the students in the said symposium.
III.
LANGUAGE MECHANICS
Language mechanics incorporate the proper use of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and other factors deemed necessary for high-quality captioned media. Rules included in these guidelines are primarily those which are unique to captioning and speech-to-text. For conventional words, dictionaries and style guides must be followed. Proper names, technical terms, and specialized language must be verified though specialty references or directly from an authoritative source. Spelling and Capitalization a) Do not emphasize a word using all capital letters except to indicate screaming or shouting. b) Be consistent in the spelling of words throughout the media. This includes vocabulary that can be spelled either as one or two words or in hyphenated form. c) Capitalize proper nouns for speaker identification. All other speaker identification should be lowercased unless this identification is being used as a proper noun. d) Lowercase sound effects, including both description and onomatopoeia, except when a proper noun is part of the description. e) See the Numbers section on the Captioning Key Appendices page for detailed guidelines for numbers including dates, time, periods of time, fractions, percent, dollar amounts, and measurements.
Punctuation and Grammar 1. Commas When captioning a list separated by commas, use a serial, or Oxford, comma. Example: Inappropriate: I'm having eggs, bacon and toast. Appropriate: I'm having eggs, bacon, and toast.
2. Hyphens and Dashes a. When a speaker hesitates or stutters, caption what is said. Example:c-c-c-old b. When captioning spelling (including fingerspelling), separate capital letters with hyphens. Example: A-N-T-I-O-N-E-T-T-E
3. a. b. c.
Ellipses Use an ellipsis when there is a significant pause within a caption. Do not use an ellipsis to indicate that the sentence continues into the next caption. Use an ellipsis to lead into or out of audio relating to an onscreen graphic.
4. Quotation Marks Use quotation marks for onscreen readings from a poem, book, play, journal, or letter. However, use quotation marks and italics for off screen readings or voice-overs. Beginning quotation marks should be used for each caption of quoted material except for the last caption. The last caption should have only the ending quotation mark. Example:Reading from a journal… "Mother knelt down and began thoughtfully fitting “the ragged edges of paper together. The process was watched with spellbound interest."
5. Spacing Spaces should not be inserted before ending punctuation, after opening and before closing parentheses and brackets, before and after double hyphens and dashes, or before/between/after the periods of an ellipsis. A space should be inserted after the beginning music icon and before the
ending music icon(s). Example:There's a bad moon rising.
6. Italics Use italics as follows: a. A voice-over reading of a poem, book, play, journal, letter, etc. (This is also quoted material, so quotation marks are also needed.) b. When a person is dreaming, thinking, or reminiscing. c. When there is background audio that is essential to the plot, such as a PA system or TV. d. The first time a new word is being defined, but do not italicize the word thereafter. e. Off screen dialogue, narrator (see Exception 2 below), sound effects, or music (this includes background music). f. The off screen narrator when there are multiple speakers onscreen or off screen. g. Speaker identification when the captioned dialogue is in italics. h. Foreign words and phrases, unless they are in an English dictionary. i. When a particular word is heavily emphasized in speech. Example: You must go!
The Writing Process: Editing After revising your work, you can edit and clarify your ideas in writing. While you edit, look for the following items: correct word usage, subject-verb agreement, correct verb tenses, clear pronoun references, run-on sentences, and sentence fragments. When editing, cross out words and write new words in margins and spaces. Proofreading entails checking for spelling, punctuation, and capitalization errors. Use the following proofreading marks:
Proof Reading Symbols
_______________________________________________________________________ Task 1 Directions: Use the proofreaders mark to show where capital letters are needed. Harriet Quimby was the first woman to earn a pilot’s license. She was a writer in New York before she flew a plane. She fell in love with airplanes in 1910 when she saw her first flying meet. Harriet become a pilot and toured in Mexico with a troupe of pilots. She decided she would be the first woman to cross the English Channel. She took off on April 16, 1912, sitting on a wicker basket in the cockpit. After a scary flight, she landed on a French beach. Answer each question with a complete sentence. Use capital letters correctly.
1. What city (or town) and state do you live in? 2. Where do you like to shop? (Use names of stores)
Task 2 Directions: Use the proofreaders mark to show where capital letters are needed (a=A). 1. writer Ed J.Smith report that people are taking cheaper trips in the summer! 2. Mr. and Mrs. sosa droven to nueva ecija and went camping. 3. Last Year, the family would have go to sea world instead? 4. This year, Dr. ortega and his family went Hiking instead of going to Boracay. 5. MS. Wills visited her friend in manila rather than flying to the island of marinduque. 6. Miss miranda link from new town, long island, spent two days in marine. 7. She went to tagaytay last year. 8. city of dreams of Manila in Paranaque City is still busy very , though. 9. Mr. Cruz wants to go to palawan to see the under ground river?
Task 3 Directions: Read the informative article. What do you notice? Rewrite the article following the writing guidelines. EARLYGREEKSHAD HARDLYANYPUNCTUATION FONOITCERIDEHTDEGNAHCNEVEDNA* THEIRWRITINGATTHEENDOFEACHLINELATER GNITIRWFOYAWAOTDEGNAHCYEHT* THATFAVOREDRIGHTHANDEDPEOPLEANDSHOWED WHEREANEWPARAGRAPHBEGANBYUNDELINING THEFIRSTLINEOFITLATERTHEGREEKPLAYWRIGHT
ARISTOPHANES , INVERTEDMARKSTOSHOW , WHERE THEREADERSSHOULDTAKEBREATH: THE . ROMANS .MADE .WRITING .MUCH .EASIER . TO .READ .BY .PUTTING .DOTS .BETWEEN .WORDS . AND .BY .MOVING .THE .FIRST .LETTER .OF .A . PARAGRAPH .INTO .THE .LEFT .MARGIN .THEY . ADAPTED .SOME .OF .THE .GREEK . MARKS. SUCH .AS .THE .COLON .MARK .TO .INDICATE .PHRASE . ENDINGS: INTHEEARLYMIDDLEAGESTHISSYSTEMOFPUNCTUATION BROKEDOWNBECAUSEVERYFEWPEOPLECOULDREAD ANDWRITE BUTWRITERSKEPTASPACEATTHEENDOF ASENTENCEANDCONTINUEDTOMARKPARAGRAPHS EVENTUALLY WORDS WERESEPARATED AGAIN AND NEW SENTENCES BEGAN WITH A LARGER LETTER
________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Task 4 Bring a memorandum of your own barangay. Look at how it was written. Are there any language mechanical errors in the memorandum? Rewrite your own version of the memorandum.
Final Task Find a chosen article from the internet that interests you most, critic the chosen article according to the pattern of development focusing on information selection, organization, and development.
References Dumlao, MG. (1999). Communicaton for Progress. Quezon City: Christian Publishing
Saqueton, G.M., Uychoco, MT. (2016). English for Academic and Professional Purposes. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store.
Barlow, J., Claiborne, S., Burns, W., et.al. (2000). Pre-GedWriting.Texas: SteckVaughn Company.
Almonte, L.R., Flandez, L.L., Malayo, DR.O., et.al. (2014) A Journey through AngloAmerican Literature- Grade 9 Learners Materials. Pasig City: Vibal Group, Inc.
Tobias-Domagsang, AG. (2016). Exploring Literature and Grammar (Reading and Writing Skills). Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
Abelos, A.V., Basbas, R.T., Gamboa, S.P., et.al. (2008) Essentials of Writing in the Discipline. Tiongson, M.T.(2016). Reading and Writing Skills. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Bookstore Inc. Cidro, M.K., Gasulas-Montenegro, A., Eusica, F.G., et al. .(2016). Reading and Writing Skills Senior High School. Quezon City: The Phoenix Publishing House Inc.
Module 2
Text and Context Connection (Critical Reading)
Lesson 1 Critical Reading as Looking for Ways of Thinking
Lesson Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain critical reading as looking for ways of thinking 2. Identify claims explicitly or implicitly made in a written text a. Claim of fact b. Claim of policy c. Claim of value 3. Identify the context in which a text is developed a. Hypertext b. Intertext 4. React on the text read based on valid evidences. What is Critical Reading? Critical Reading involves scrutinizing any information that you read or hear. Critical reading means not easily believing information offered to you by a text. “Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider” as Francis Bacon stated in The Essays. Critical Reading is an active process of discovery because when you read critically, you are not just receiving information but also making an interaction with the
writer. The interaction happens when you question the writer’s claims and assertions and when you comment on the writer’s ideas. The following requirement in critical thinking (Ramage, Bean, and Johnson (2006) ;
The ability to pose problematic questions The ability to analyze a problem in all its dimensions-to define its key terms, determine its causes, understand its history, appreciate its human dimension and its connection to one’s own personal experience, and appreciate what makes it
problematic or complex The ability to find, gather, and interpret data, facts, and other information relevant
to the problem The ability to analyze competing approaches and answers, to construct arguments for and against alternatives, and to choose the best solution in the light of values,
objectives, and other criteria that you determine and articulate The ability to write an effective argument justifying your choice while acknowledging counter– arguments
The following are some suggested ways to help you become a critical reader. 1. Annotate what you read– One of the ways to interact with the writer is to write on the text. You can underline, circle, or highlight words, phrases, or sentences that contain important details, or you can write marginal notes asking questions or commenting on the ideas of the writer. There are no clear and definite guidelines to annotating a text; you can create your own style. For instance, you can circle unfamiliar words or underline ideas that you think are questionable. 2. Outline the text– In order to fully engage in a dialogue with the text or with the writer of the text, you need to identify the main points of the writer and list them down so you can also identify the ideas that the writer has raised to support his/her stand, You don't necessarily have to write a structures sentence or topic outline for this purpose; you can just write in bullet or in numbers. 3. Summarize the text– aside from outlining, you can also get the main points of the text you are reading and write its gist in your own words. This will test how much you have understood the text and will help you evaluate it critically. A summary is usually
one paragraph long. 4. Evaluate the text– The most challenging part in critical reading is the process of evaluating what you are reading. This is the point where the other three techniques— annotating, outlining, summarizing– will be helpful. When you evaluate a text, you question the author’s purpose and intentions, as well as his/her assumptions in the claims. You also check if the arguments are supported by the evidence and if the evidence are valid and are from credible resources. 5. Questioning the text Questioning the text involves asking specific questions on points that you are skeptical about. These may be topics that do not meet your expectations or agree with your personal views. Alternately, you should also take note of things that you found impressive. The following may be asked:
What type of audience is addressed? What are the writer’s assumptions? What are the writer’s intentions? How well does the writer accomplish these? How convincing is the evidence presented? How reliable are the sources? Are they based on personal experience, scientific
data, or outside authorities? Did the writer address opposing views on the issue? Is the writer persuasive in his/her perspective?
6. Keeping a reading journal A reading journal is similar to keeping a diary, except you are writing your feelings and ideas in reaction to your reading assignment. This process allows you to develop your impressions of the text and connect them to your personal experiences. This allows you to better relate the essay and understand the author’s ideas. _______________________________________________________________________
Task 1
Directions: Explains critical reading as looking for ways of thinking. Map out your answers on the graphic organizer below.
Critical Reading
Active
Process of Discovery
Task 2 Read the following selection. Using the information in the selection do the activity below. The Effect of Using the Facebook By Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang “Think about what people are doing on Facebook today. They’re keeping up with their friend and family, but they’re also building an image and identity for themselves, which in a sense is their brand. They’re connecting with the audience what they want to connect to. It’s almost a disadvantage if you’re not on it now.’’-Mark Zuckerberg. With the advent and the continuous development of technology come the Internet and the emerging issues that it brings. According to the internet world Statistics, there are approximately 2,267,233,742 internet users worldwide in 2012.Today it is no doubt that such number has dramatically increased. The purpose of the internet has been changing from time to time. Decades ago, many people used the internet mainly to research and acquire relevant information that could be valuable in their fields of study and life endeavors. It has also been used to communicate with people. Today, however, many people use the internet as their main source of entertainment and socialization. You can even bet that many of these Internet
users only go online to check Facebook accounts. It is important to learn that the Statistics Portal report 1.44 billion monthly active Facebook users monthly as of the first quarter of 2015.Active users are defined as those who have logged into Facebook during the last 30 days. Interestingly, Facebook users in 2008 did not even reach a hundred million. But in the third quarter of 2012, the number of active Facebook users skyrocketed and surpassed 1 billion. Furthermore, as of that quarter, the social network had 1.25billion active mobile users. A question remains, however, what is really the impact of Facebook in our world today? The Facebook can be used to connect with people. Probably, all of us have found friends and acquaintances that we would like to reconnect with in the Facebook. This has been one of the fastest ways to chat and communicate with people all over the world. We can use this social network to invite friends to an important event, inform people of significant news in our lives, and vice-versa. This has also been very effective way to advertise business pursuits, look for job opportunities, validate the credibility of a certain individual or organization, be informed about important world phenomenon, search for great leisure places, and find a great educational opportunity and many more. However, if the Facebook renders countless benefits, it may also cause danger to users who are not cautious and alert. For example, adding strangers, fake accounts and untrustworthy acquaintances on Facebook may cause threat on the individual and his or her family security. If not careful, one may also be a victim of business and other organizational scams. Other people may even believe on information and news from unreliable sources, and cause other people to be misled by sharing such information. Pornography and other materials those are not appropriate for young people can be accessed easily. Cyber bullying and persecution have caused many people pain and suffering. Sometimes, opportunities for genuine face to face interaction are sacrificed, and precious time is wasted. Kimberly S.Young’s research study untitled “Internet Addiction. A new Clinical Phenomenon and Its consequence” in 2013,tackles very critical issues that happen in
reality among Internet users, in which she explains that the Internet has great effect, not just to the students
and employees, but also to family relationships. In fact, three
surprising problems among users emerged after conducting the study. (1) Cyber affair, (2) student internet abuse and (3) employee internet abuse. Social media, specifically the Facebook, play a great role in such issues. So, is the Facebook a blessing to the world of communications and social media? Or is it a cause for worry among the guardians of societal ethics and morality? Is it a boon or a bane? Well, as we reflect upon the impact of social media, it is important to remember that in the end, it is still up to us whether to use social media can be very beneficial if used properly. It can help us connect with people and pursue great opportunities. Pornography, cyber bullying, and other online scams will not be able to affect us if we do not allow it to enter into our online lives. Because in the end, the nature of the internet is not really the challenge-but the discipline of its users. Answer the following questions. 1. How has the purpose of the internet changed over time? 2. According to statistics portal, what is an “active” Facebook user? 3. What are the benefits of using the Facebook? 4. What are the risks of using the Facebook? 5. According to the study conducted by Kimberly Young, what are the three negative effects of using the Internet? 6. Do you think that having a social media account is necessary today? In your opinion, is social media doing more good than harm? Justify your answer. 8. How should we properly use the social media? Task 3 React
React on the text above based on the ideas presented. Write a letter to Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang on her text entitled “The Effects of Using the Facebook”.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLAIMS TO SUPPORTS ARGUMENTS
Explicit and Implicit Information When you want to develop your critical reading skills you should be able to distinguish the information that is clearly stated (explicit) in the text from ideas that are suggested (implicit). This will help you to infer what you read. Explicit information is clearly written and explained in the text so the reader will not be confused. Implicit information is something that is implied, but not stated outright in the text. Because the idea is not written in the text, you need to use clues in the text to make an inference on what you have read. An inference is a conclusion that you make based on explicit information and your reasoning and background knowledge.
Defining Claims Learning how to identify explicit and implicit information's will help you in one of the mostly important skills needed in critical reading; evaluating the claims made by an author. This involves going back to the text to recognize the writer’s arguments and evidence so you can begin judging the writer's work. Whenever you read something, you find yourself looking for the writer’s point or position regarding the chosen topic. That point is also known as the claim, or the central argument or thesis statement of the text. This claim is what the writer tries to prove in the text by providing details, explanations, and other types of evidence. As such it is usually found in the introduction or in the first few paragraphs of the text. The claim is the most important part of the text. The quality and complexity of the reading depend on the claim, because claims defines the paper’s direction and scope.
The claim is a sentence that summarizes the most important thing that the writer wants to say as a result of his/her thinking, reading, or writing. The following are the characteristic of good claims: 1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable. 2. A claim should be specific and focused. 3. A claim should be interesting and engaging. 4. A claim should logical.
Different Types of Claims to Supports Arguments Assuming that a reader poses some questions about the arguments stated in an article, the answer to the said questions may be tested by using the multidisciplinary approach to argumentation. Analyze the claims of fact, policy, and value stated by the author regarding the article. In any type of argumentation, it is always important to know these different types of claims.
A. The claim of fact asserts the existence of something based on facts and data that is quantifiable and measurable. It also attempts to define, classify, and make inferences. Factual claims are generally “objective” and proofs used require reliable authority, accurate and recent data, and clearly defined terms. Claims of fact usually answer a “what question”. The questions that follow are useful in determining whether something is a claim of fact.
Is this issue related to a possible cause or effect? Is this statement true or false? How can its truthfulness be verified? Is this claim controversial or debatable?
Example of claim of fact – “. . . According to the Internet World statistics, there are approximately 2, 267, 233, 742 Internet users worldwide in 2012. . .” Here is another example. “.. Today, many people use the Internet as their main source of entertainment and socialization..” Remember that claims of fact do not necessarily express true sentences all the time. They may be true from the author’s point of view, but you may think otherwise.
Read this example. “. . . You can even bet that many of those Internet users only go online to check their Facebook accounts. . .”
B. The claim of value, on the other hand, attempts to prove that there are things that are more or less valuable and desirable. It asserts something qualified. It involves judgments, evaluation and appraisals. In this type of claims, standards of evaluation must be wellestablished, and abstract values must be clarifies through examples. The practical and moral advantages of the author’s standards must also be explained. Claims of value attempt to explain how problems, situations, or issues ought to be valued. To discover these explanations', you may ask the following question:
Which claims endorse what is good or right? What qualities should be considered good? Why? Which of these values contend with others? Which ones are more important and
why? Whose standards are used? What are some concrete examples of such values?
Example “This (the Facebook) has also been a very effective way to advertise business pursuits, look for job opportunities, validate the credibility of a certain individual or organization,
be informed about important world phenomenon, search for great leisure places, find a great educational opportunity, and many more.” C. The claim of policy asserts that certain policies be instituted as solutions to particular problems. It tells specific actions should be chosen to a particular problem. It usually entails sub claims of fact and value. Here, the proposed actions must be clear and welljustified. The plan must also be workable and the benefits of the propositions must be explained. Opposition and counter arguments must also be considered. The following questions will be useful in evaluating a claim of policy:
Does the claim suggest a specific remedy to solve the problem? Is the policy clearly defined? Is the need for the policy established? Is the policy the best one available? For whom? According to whose standards? How does the policy solve the problem?
Examples “. . . In the end, it is still up to us whether to use social media to our advantage or allow it to destroys us . . “ “. . . Pornography, cyberbullying, and other online scams will not affect us if we do not allow it to enter into our online lives. ..”
Task 1 Read the following text. DOH to Start Giving Out Condoms In Schools Next Year By: Jhesset O. Enano, Julie M. Aurelio, Tina G. Santos Starting next year, the Department of Health (DOH) plans to distribute condoms in schools as part of its “business unusual” strategy amid the sharp rise in the number of HIV and AIDS among the youth in the country. The DOH also urges parents to teach safe sex at home as part of the strategy. “As soon as we thresh out the strategy with the Department of Education (DepEd), we can distribute (condoms) after providing them proper counseling,” Health Secretary
Paulyn Ubial said in a press conference for the World AIDS Day 2016 on Thursday. “Of course, we also have to prepare the school authorities, teachers, principals, healthcare providers,” Ubial said. Data show that from 1984 to October 2016, a total of 38,114 HIV cases were recorded, with 32,099 tallied from 2011 to 2016. Among 15 to 24 years olds, there were 10,279 HIV cases during the period, of which 9,066 were tallied since 2011. Alarmed by the rising HIV/AIDS cases, the head of the Episcopal Commission on Health Care of the Catholic bishops conference urged the youth to do their part in educating the public on the occasion of the World AIDS Day. “The cases rose, especially for those aged 15 to 24 years old. They are [our] future, our high school and college students,” said Fr. Dan Cancino, the commission’s executive secretary. On Radio Veritas, he invited the youth to join on Dec. 4 the National Catholic AIDS Sunday, which is celebrated every first Sunday of December to raise public awareness on HIV/AIDS. “This is a day for us to increase our knowledge and awareness, especially the youth, on the global problem of HIV/AIDS,” Cancino said. An awareness conference will be held on Sunday at the Chapel of the Eucharistic Lord on the fifth floor of SM Megamall in Mandaluyong City. Be honest, factual Ubial said the information campaign must go down to the household and community level. “As soon as the child asks you a question, be honest, say it outright. (Don’t) talk about the bees and the birds,” she said. “You talk to the child as if you’re discussing any topic under the sun. Be factual. Don’t beat around the bush. Don’t even use analogy. Just go straight to the point. I think that has been proven in other many countries that that’s the way to inform the youth,” she added. World Health Organization (WHO) representative Gundo Weiler said educating the youth would enable them to protect themselves better. Right information National Youth Commission Chair Aiza Seguerra said parents must not avoid talking about sex to equip their children with the right information. “Because of our culture, we get embarrassed by topics like sex (and) HIV/AIDS … but I believe (correct information) starts at home. Please make sure (your kids) are protected,” Seguerra said. Ubial said the plan to distribute condoms was part of the business unusual strategy that the DOH intends to develop in an effort to fight HIV/AIDS. “We’re offering distribution of condoms with our partners in the National Youth
Commission and DepEd. This is a nontraditional outlet for safe sex interventions, but we have to do this,” she said. “[Our strategy] would no longer just focus on health centers and hospitals. We’ll go down to the community, to the households, involving the parents, the education sector, the teachers, the whole community,” she said. Antiretroviral treatments Treatment options are available to those who test positive for HIV. Antiretroviral treatments (ART) are applied to individuals who need to lower the viral load of patients and to improve their immune response. Next year’s budget for ART will leap from P900 million to P1 billion and will allow the DOH to provide ART to over 39,000 individuals, Ubial said. Apart from distributing condoms in schools, the DOH said it was considering heeding the call of the WHO to make HIV self-testing kits available to the public. Ubial said she planned to make HIV self-test kits available to individuals in places where they could get adequate counseling and not in drug stores. Free and confidential HIV testing is available at traditional health providers, local government units and partner NGOs. On the sidelines of the World AIDS Awareness program in Quezon City, Dr. Mario Baquilod, officer in charge of the DOH-Disease Prevention and Control Bureau, said that while the central health office was focusing mainly on policy formulation, the implementation of health programs lay with the local governments. Read more: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/849926/doh-to-start-giving-out-condoms-in-schoolsnext-year#ixzz4XPmramw5
Directions: The following statements contain ideas taken from the news article “DOH to Start Giving out Condoms in Schools Next Year”. Write “I” if the statements contains an implicit idea from the text. Write “E” if the statement mentions something explicitly from the text. Go back to the text to locate exactly where the explicit information is found, and then highlight it.
__________1. DOH will be giving condoms to publish schools to alleviate HIV/AIDS among teenagers. __________2. The government is optimistic in promoting awareness among teenagers on
advantages and disadvantages of using condoms. __________ 3. HIV/AIDS problems are very rampant cases in our country nowadays. __________4. Culture and faith affects the judgment of an individual especially when we talk about issues in the society. __________5. There will be a conflict among the beliefs of the state church and state.
Task 2 Directions: Based on the given characteristics above, evaluate the following claims. Place a check (/) on the blank beside the number if you consider the examples a good claim. Otherwise, on the space provided, state what can be improved in the given example. __________1. The country face numerous problems today. ____________________________________________________________ ___________2. Teenagers must be exposed with social media since it is a trend. ____________________________________________________________ ___________3. We must provide a good quality of education among the youth to eradicate
poverty
and
help
the
country
to
progress.
___________________________________________________________ ___________ 4. Fictional characters from different stories are the product of imagination and reality. ___________________________________________________________ ___________5. War on drugs alleviate crimes and make a peaceful country. ____________________________________________________________
Task 3 Identify each statement below as a claim of fact, value or policy. Briefly explain your choice.
1. The government should not revive death penalty. ________________________________________________________________________ 2. Giving death sentence to criminals is wrong. ________________________________________________________________________ 3. Death penalty as a punishment is not effective, as it does not deter crime. ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Death penalty is immoral. ________________________________________________________________________ 5. There should be a restoration of death penalty on war on drugs. ________________________________________________________________________
Task 4 Imagine that you are writing an essay in response to the news article, develop the following claim below. Which of the given statements support the claim? Place a check (/)on the blank beside the number if the statement is acceptable evidence. Otherwise, decide how it can be improved by labeling it as irrelevant (IR), inaccurate (IA), or too general (TG). Then rewrite the evidence to improve it. Claim: Prevention is better than cure. _________1. Health is valuable present for human life. ________________________________________________________________________ _________ 2. People should know how to protect themselves from diseases through health education. ________________________________________________________________________ _________ 3. One person just has one life ________________________________________________________________________ _________ 4. Troubles or problem cannot be corrected by prevention but foolishness
rules the intelligence of right thinking and pleases us to adopt false advice. ________________________________________________________________________ _________ 5. The government does need to educate teenagers on health lifestyle. ________________________________________________________________________
CONTEXT IN TEXT DEVELOPMENT
Intertextuality as a Literary Device It is a fact that many readers are influenced by the texts that they read. They even sort through their archives while reading a new one. Intertextuality is a powerful writing tool in which a text gain layers of meaning through citation and referencing of other texts. In this strategy, the author borrows a prior text from another and integrates it in his writing. This way, the readers are able to see the interrelationship among texts and are able to generate a deeper understanding about the topic being discussed. Intertext is literally a discourse strategy used by many writers, poets and even playwrights. The use of this device shapes the meaning of a text in the light of another text, thus, creating a new meaning, influence and interpretation. The Bible is a classic example of intertextuality in which authors of the New Testament quote passages from the Old Testament. However, aside from merely referencing words and phrases, this device may also involve drawing upon a certain concept and ideology from another text. Ernest Hemingway’s novel entitled For Whom the Bell Tolls, published in 1940, shows another example of the use of intertext. It is a story of a young American named Robert Jordan who was attached to a republican guerrilla unit during the Spanish Civil War. The book’s title was actually taken from Meditation XVII (Devotions upon Emergent Occasions) of the renowned poet John Donne. In his book’s epigraph, Hemingway quoted part of John Donne’s meditation: Example
“No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friend’s or of thine own were: any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.”
Hypertext and Hypermedia Hypertext is a non-linear way to present information and is usually accomplished using “links.” Such links help the readers navigate further information about the topic being discussed and may also lead to other links that can direct the readers to various options. Thus, instead of merely reading things in the other dictated by the writer of the text, the readers are able to move freely at their own pace and follow their own path as they investigate the topic. Hypertext also allows the readers to create their own meaning out of the material given to them and learn better associatively. Today, links are just limited to text or documents but may also incorporate other forms of multimedia such as pictures, sounds and videos that could stimulate more senses. This is called hypermedia. Because hypertext and hypermedia take away full control of the author over the direction that a reader must take, an environment of independent and critical thinking is then created. In a way, the readers become co-authors of the material by creating connections and meanings for themselves.
Task 1 Directions: Read the intertext used by the author in her article , “ Losing Your Privacy Online.” Answer the questions that follow. Identify the intertext used in the following text and how it was used.
Losing Your Privacy Online By Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang
In 2012, Mike Conrad of the United States Federal Beureau of Investigation (FBI) warned the public about a disturbing trend nowadays, wherein people use social media to look for infants to kidnap. According to Conrad, such incident happens about three to five times a week nationwide in the United States. But cases of kidnapping infants through information acquired from social media do not just happen in the US, but they also happen in other parts of the world. Thus, the public has always been warned to make sure that photos uploaded in social networking sites such as Facebook, must be kept in private. Mothers too must be cautious on what kind of information and how much information they can share online (CBS 5, Kidnappers Using Social Media to Find Infants) Meanwhile, in the Philippines, Anti-Kidnapping Group chief of staff Rene Aspera said that some kidnapping syndicates have turned to Facebook and other social networks to scout for their next victims. After receiving about 43 kidnap-for-ransom cases, he had warned the public to limit the content they post on the Facebook and the Twitter, especially about their wealth and material possessions. (Aurelio, Kidnappers Scanning Social Networks for Potential Victims) The two cases mentioned above are just among hundreds of crimes and dangers happening globally today because of disclosure of information from online sites. Thus, as online users, it is important to know how private information is disclosed online and that reducing the amount of information you share in the internet can lessen such risk. How private Information is Disclose Online It is important to understand that seemingly harmless applications such as games and Facebook quizzes may actually be collecting a large amount of data about a person – his name, gender, residential address, email address, phone number, relationships status, affiliations, interest, names of family members, vacation destinations, past
experiences, and many more. By simply clicking about your friends click “allow,” they are also sharing information about you, even without your permission. (Raicu, Loss of online Privacy: What’s the Harm?) Moreover, various online entities insert small bits of data called cookies into your computer, which allow companies to track your actions across the Web. They are then able to note which sites you visit, what you buy online, and even what advertisements you click. In addition, when you click “ keep me connected” in sites such as the Facebook, you are also allowing such sites to ride with you as you browse the net. Even the social plugin buttons that you on different web pages, such as Google’s “+1” and Facebook’s “like” also send information to those sites, making it known that you have actually visited those pages. Thus, all the contents of your emails can now be stored for future use by data miners. (Raicu, Loss of Online Privacy: What’s the harm?) Also if you search for particular information online or even download certain songs, variounline entities will know and will make conclusions about you based on those searches. Later on, you may finf certain ads popping on your screen which reflect the subjects that you have previously searched for. Search engines present your search results in a customized manner in such a way that it would match your preferences. In fact, Jonathan Shaw’s article entitled cheap, “people can collect data and never throw anything away.” If you are for example, under the age of 30 and you indicate your place of birth, eight or nine digits of your Social Security number can b correctly predicted. This is because certain data are linked to other data. To add, if you are not cautious enough in sharing posts and photos about your life to the public, strangers can use such information to rob you or do other harmful things such as the incidents mentioned at the beginning of this essay. How to Avoid Disclosure of Private Information To avoid disclosing information online, one must make it a habit to adjust privacy setting all the time. The public does not have to know everything that is happening in your life. Sharing your exact birthday, your residential address and even posting detailed pictures of your home are very risky. Moreover, a person should be cautious on what he clicks online because one simple click can allow online entities to access data about you.
In his article, “Plenty to Hide,” Jan Stanley, a Senior Policy Analyst for the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) writes: Ultimately the fullest resort to the “nothing to hide” impulse is a richer philosophical defense of privacy that articulates its importance to human life- the human need for a refuge from the eye of the community, and from the self monitoring that living with others entails; the need for space in which to play and to try out new, identities, and behaviors, without lasting consequences. In conclusion, people must remember that the internet today is not anymore on its infant stage. It has grown and developed so rapidly that it has not quite set the rues yet. New privacy challenges arise online every now and then. At present, there are still no fixed laws and regulations online that people can truly depend on. This is because the legal system worldwide has not been able to keep up with the speedy changes of technology yet. Thus, online users must be more cautious and reduce the amount of information they share online. Better yet, reduce the time they spend online, and focus more on ganuine face to face relationships.
Works Cited :Aurelio, Julie. “Kidnappers Scanning Social Networks for Potential Victims.” Philippine Daily Inquirer, Nov. 23, 2014 “FBI: Kidnappers Using Social Media to Find Infants” CBS 5 Action Button , 2013 Shaw, Jonathan. Exposed: The Erosion of Privacy in the internet.” Harvard Magazine, 2009. Raicu, Irina. “Loss of Online Privacy: What’s the Harm?” Santa Clara University, June 2012 Stanley, Jay. “Plenty to Hide.” American civil Liberties Union
Answer these questions. 1. Why is disclosure of private information online dangerous? 2. What do you think is the best way to protect your private information online? 3. In using social media, how can you protect your “online friends” from unwanted disclosure of their private information? 4. In your opinion, does the internet do more harm than good? Justify your answer?
Task Directions: In what way is the author’s use of the intertexts helpful to the readers in the article Losing Your Privacy Online by Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang.
________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Task 3 The article written by Irina Raicu: “Less More of Online Privacy! What’s the Harm?” was mentioned by the author. This article was retrieved from this webpage: http://www. Scu.edu/ethics-center/privacy/harm. Search for this article online and examine the links used in the page to acquire more information about the topic. What new insights have you gained by exploring the information found on these link?
Lesson 2 Critical Reading as Reasoning Lesson Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Explain critical reading as reasoning Formulate evaluative statements about a text read Formulate assertions about the content and properties of a text read Formulate meaningful counterclaims in response to claims made in a text read
Critical Reading Leads to Critical Thinking When we read a text critically, we try to discover new ideas, new insights, or new information from the text. We are on guard for new concepts that we will be able to gather from what we are reading. When we react, either by agreeing or disagreeing with the presented information, we are actually doing critical reading by reasoning. While critical reading refers to a careful, active, reflective, and analytic reading, critical thinking involves reflecting on the validity of what we have read in the light of our prior experiences and understanding. We react to the claims of facts, of values, or of policies in the text by presenting our own counterclaims. Backed up by our own reason and proofs. Features of Critical Thinking Critical thinking includes a combination of skills. 1. Reasoning To be able to evaluate critically, the reader should rely on reason rather than on emotions or popular opinions. Like an impartial judge, the reader should search for evidences and ask questions seeking for best explanations.
2. Self-awareness The reader should recognize his own assumptions, biases, and points of review. He should not be swayed by the author’s opinions, but rather should be able to state what he believes in, and to stand for what he says.
3. Open-mindedness While a critical reader/thinker is expected to state firmly what he believes in, he is expected, at the same time, to be open to alternative interpretations as the situations call for them.
Task 1 Read the news article. School Uniforms
School uniforms are becoming a popular trend amongst schools. Students and even most parents don’t agree with the enforcement with school uniforms; stating that uniforms take away the right of self-expression. School uniforms are not a negative thing to have. Yes, uniforms limit what the students have to choose to wear to school every day, but it doesn’t limit them from learning; the only reason they are in school. Student treat school as a fashion show, so eliminating that puts the students’ full focus on schoolwork. Although requiring students to wear school uniforms may violate their self-expression in some ways, a uniform are supposed to be looked upon as a positive thing, because they eliminate bullying, combine social classes and gives the school campus a professional look. The most common argument against school uniforms is that they take away the students right to self- expression. Yes, school uniforms limit what the students have to wear, but he/she can still have their own ways of self-expression. Students can still express their style of choice by the way he/she styles their hair and what accessories they choose to wear. Their shoe choice is also a form of self-expression. Students can make the uniforms their own style without breaking the dress code. Just because a student can’t wear the most fashionable jeans to school doesn’t mean that his/her rights are taken away. School is a place to learn. Outside of school, kids can wear and express themselves any way they please. Requiring school uniforms eliminates the chances of bullying. Bullies usually pick on kids based on what they wear. What happens when they are wearing the same thing? Everyone will be dressed the same, leaving less room to get picked on. Bullies won’t have the need to pick on someone as much as he/she would if uniforms were not required, because everyone would pretty much look the same, including the bullies.
When people all look the same, there is really nothing for other kids to point out and make fun of. Uniforms provide a more bully- free environment for the students. Having uniforms in schools also erase the defined line of the social classes. Usually, popular kids in the higher social classes would only be wearing the trendiest clothing. The poor, lower social classes would only be wearing the latest shipment from the nearest Wal-Mart. School uniforms bring the social classes together. Everyone would be wearing the same brand of clothes from the same few stores that sell school uniforms. Nobody would be able to determine what social class a person is in just by looking at what the other person is wearing. Everyone would all blend together and be at the same level; no upper or lower classes dividing the students. Schools the require uniforms look more formal and well put together. Schools that don’t require uniforms have those few kids who don’t care how they dress, or dress sloppy. There are kids walking around with pants sagging to the ground and underwear showing. Some kids will even be wearing inappropriate logos on shirts or jackets. That gives the school a bad look and reputation. Schools with uniforms have all the students dressed nicely in the assigned uniforms. The school looks well put together and well maintained. Students who don’t have to focus on what to wear to school are going to focus more on academics, which leads to improved grades. The school will look better presentation wise and academically. Overall, school uniforms are a great thing to have. Even though this argument whether or not school uniforms violates the students right to self- expression will be never ending. There seems to be more positive outlooks than negative on schools that require school uniforms. Having school uniforms be required for the students to wear gets rid of the bullies who pick on other students based on what they are wearing. Uniforms eliminate the separation of social classes, especially when that is mainly determined by what brands of clothing a person wears. Last but not least, school districts that require their students to wear school uniform have more of a formal look to the school. School uniforms are a positive thing, because they take away bullying opportunities, judging of social class and make the school look more professional.
http://wightargumentativeuniforms.weebly.com/essay.html Battle of You and Me Is wearing school uniform acceptable or not? Prepare a debate having affirmative and negative side in the wearing of school uniform. Be guided in the debate proper.
Task 2 Directions: Read the following text from the New International Version of 1 Corinthian 13 which is about St. Paul’s letter to the Corinthians. This epistle talks about love. Write an essay about your own thoughts concerning this text. 13 If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and give over my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain nothing. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres. Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophecy in part, but when completeness comes, what is in part disappears. When I was a child, I talked like a child; I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put the ways of childhood behind me. For now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known. And know these three main: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.
1 Corinthians 13, New International Version (NIV)
Task 3 You are a segment producer of a documentary news program. You are tasked to create a presentation report for a segment about addiction issues among the Filipino youth. You are to gather at least three different articles. In your presentation report, be guided by the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Which social issue do I want to focus on? What is the central message of each research title? What strategy did I use to process the articles I read? What message do I want to address in my report What message do I want my viewers to remember? What reasons can I present to convince my viewers about my message? What better way can I express my ideas? What is the appropriate title for my report? What questions do I want to ask my viewers to ponder on?
EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS Writing an Evaluative Statement The use of evaluative language enables the writers of self-assessment reports to present opinions, judgments and points of view in a clear concise manner. Evaluative language helps turn fact into key judgments. Writing a realistic evaluative statement is not difficult if you adhere to these helpful guidelines set out below.
Prepare 1. Work with colleagues who are knowledgeable about the subject and look carefully at the key criteria you are being asked to evaluate yourself against. 2. Always utilize reliable evidence to support your evaluation, such as; achievement data, learner numbers, stakeholder views, colleagues experience etc., etc.
3. Making notes in bullet format will help you plan what you want to say and will crystallize your thinking. Organize your bullet notes into;
Strengths Areas for improvement This will help you weigh up how effective you are.
4. Avoid trying to cancel out areas for improvement with strengths and vice versa; zone does not cancel out the other. You are simply looking to compare and well organized notes will help you develop a balanced view.
Develop When writing an evaluative statement you are explaining why a strength, is a strength or an area for improvement needs improving. The judgment is best developed by: 1. Looking at all your notes for your subject and ask yourself, how well is this activity being done? ‘All learners benefit from very well prepared program of vocationally relevant work experience’ 2. Then use the notes to help the reader understand your opinion ‘There is a high level of employer engagement at the beginning of the program, enabling optional units to be selected according to the employers business needs as well as the learners skills needs. 80% of learners undergoing work program in the past 12 months have secured permanent employment as a result of their program’ 3. Asking yourself, so what, what impact is this having? ‘These early discussions encourage all parties to select more challenging units that greatly enhancing learners’ employment opportunities’ 4. Now putting it all together ‘All learners benefit from very well prepared programs of vocationally relevant work experience’. There is a high level of employer engagement at the beginning of the program, enabling optional units to be selected according to the employers business needs as well as the learners skills needs. 80% of learners
undergoing work programs in the past 12 months have secured permanent employment as a result of their program. These early discussions encourage all parties to select more challenging units that greatly enhancing learners’ employment opportunities.
Including a well-thought-out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis your readers may not make a connection between the two or they may draw different conclusions. Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a counterclaim. Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument. This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments. Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of your readers. It also makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the debate rather than just being biased or uninformed. You may want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.
Creating Assertions Assertions are opinions that people may or may not agree with. They are not general truths; instead, they are positions on an issue. For example, when it comes to the issue of whether uniforms should be required in the school, the assertion is that the use of uniforms promotes the ideals of equality in the school. This is a philosophical position that one may or may not agree with. An example of statement that is not an assertion is that all uniforms look the same. One cannot possibly disagree with this, because this is a general truth, a statement of fact, whereas an assertion is a statement of opinion. Nobody can contest that all uniforms look the same, but others may disagree that this promotes the ideals of equality. For example, uniforms may be made from different materials, of either inferior or
superior quality, and this is already an indicator of social inequality. There are different kinds of lunchboxes, bags, and the meals themselves that may be subject to social evaluation and inspection. In the end, because children are often cruel, these can be used as a basis for ridicule and bullying, despite wearing the same uniform as their classmates. In this manner, one can argue on principle that uniforms do not promote equality, even though all uniforms superficially look the same. Upon building arguments, one should write down several assertions. After reading one’s assertions, one should evaluate whether all of these assertions fit a particular theme or main idea. This theme, main idea, or your thesis statement should be the controlling idea of your position paper. For example, in the position regarding the requirement of uniforms in the school, one may write the following assertions: Uniforms promote the ideals of equality. Uniforms lessen distractions between the opposite sex. Uniforms unite the student populace in having a common purpose and identity. Uniforms make people feel that they are part of a larger institution than themselves.
Task 1 Directions: In a small group of four to five students, collect three advertisements that you think are especially effective. Get from: (1) a print advertisement, (2) a radio advertisement, and (3) a television commercial, with a total of three advertisements for each medium. Discuss why you think each advertisement is persuasive and effective, and break down the advertisement using the following worksheet.
Claim
Assumption
Evidence
(What is the
(What is the logical
(What does it present as
What makes the
advertisement
construction of the
proof to show that the
advertisement
trying to say?
argument)
claim is true?)
Effective?
Advertisement 1:
Advertisement 2:
Advertisement 3:
Task 2 Directions: With your group, choose an editorial from a newspaper. Break down the arguments of the editorial by filling in the worksheet below.
Assertion
Evidence
Explanation
Is the Argument Valid? Why or Why Not?
Task 3 Think of a problem in your community that you think your co-barangays are mostly affected. Write an essay about it.
Final Task Write a 1000- word critique of a selected text on the basis of its claim/s, context, and properties as a written material.
References Dumlao, MG. (1999). Communicaton for Progress. Quezon City: Christian Publishing.
Saqueton, G.M., Uychoco, MT. (2016). English for Academic and Professional Purposes. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store.
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